diff --git a/src/Args.h b/src/Args.h
index c6d131c8..d836b643 100644
--- a/src/Args.h
+++ b/src/Args.h
@@ -30,6 +30,7 @@
 #include "DSi_NAND.h"
 #include "FATStorage.h"
 #include "FreeBIOS.h"
+#include "GPU3D_Soft.h"
 #include "SPI_Firmware.h"
 #include "SPU.h"
 
@@ -118,6 +119,11 @@ struct NDSArgs
     /// Defaults to disabled.
     /// Ignored in builds that don't have the GDB stub included.
     std::optional<GDBArgs> GDB = std::nullopt;
+
+    /// The 3D renderer to initialize the DS with.
+    /// Defaults to the software renderer.
+    /// Can be changed later at any time.
+    std::unique_ptr<melonDS::Renderer3D> Renderer3D = std::make_unique<SoftRenderer>();
 };
 
 /// Arguments to pass into the DSi constructor.
diff --git a/src/GPU.cpp b/src/GPU.cpp
index 2c140a86..c226ccbe 100644
--- a/src/GPU.cpp
+++ b/src/GPU.cpp
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ GPU::GPU(melonDS::NDS& nds, std::unique_ptr<Renderer3D>&& renderer3d, std::uniqu
     NDS(nds),
     GPU2D_A(0, *this),
     GPU2D_B(1, *this),
-    GPU3D(nds, renderer3d ? std::move(renderer3d) : std::make_unique<SoftRenderer>(*this)),
+    GPU3D(nds, renderer3d ? std::move(renderer3d) : std::make_unique<SoftRenderer>()),
     GPU2D_Renderer(renderer2d ? std::move(renderer2d) : std::make_unique<GPU2D::SoftRenderer>(*this))
 {
     NDS.RegisterEventFunc(Event_LCD, LCD_StartHBlank, MemberEventFunc(GPU, StartHBlank));
@@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ void GPU::Stop() noexcept
     memset(Framebuffer[1][0].get(), 0, fbsize*4);
     memset(Framebuffer[1][1].get(), 0, fbsize*4);
 
-    GPU3D.Stop();
+    GPU3D.Stop(*this);
 }
 
 void GPU::DoSavestate(Savestate* file) noexcept
@@ -294,7 +294,7 @@ void GPU::AssignFramebuffers() noexcept
 void GPU::SetRenderer3D(std::unique_ptr<Renderer3D>&& renderer) noexcept
 {
     if (renderer == nullptr)
-        GPU3D.SetCurrentRenderer(std::make_unique<SoftRenderer>(*this));
+        GPU3D.SetCurrentRenderer(std::make_unique<SoftRenderer>());
     else
         GPU3D.SetCurrentRenderer(std::move(renderer));
 
@@ -899,7 +899,7 @@ void GPU::StartHBlank(u32 line) noexcept
     }
     else if (VCount == 215)
     {
-        GPU3D.VCount215();
+        GPU3D.VCount215(*this);
     }
     else if (VCount == 262)
     {
@@ -925,7 +925,7 @@ void GPU::FinishFrame(u32 lines) noexcept
 
     if (GPU3D.AbortFrame)
     {
-        GPU3D.RestartFrame();
+        GPU3D.RestartFrame(*this);
         GPU3D.AbortFrame = false;
     }
 }
@@ -1018,7 +1018,7 @@ void GPU::StartScanline(u32 line) noexcept
             // texture memory anyway and only update it before the start
             //of the next frame.
             // So we can give the rasteriser a bit more headroom
-            GPU3D.VCount144();
+            GPU3D.VCount144(*this);
 
             // VBlank
             DispStat[0] |= (1<<0);
@@ -1038,7 +1038,7 @@ void GPU::StartScanline(u32 line) noexcept
 
             // Need a better way to identify the openGL renderer in particular
             if (GPU3D.IsRendererAccelerated())
-                GPU3D.Blit();
+                GPU3D.Blit(*this);
         }
     }
 
@@ -1068,7 +1068,7 @@ void GPU::SetVCount(u16 val) noexcept
 }
 
 template <u32 Size, u32 MappingGranularity>
-NonStupidBitField<Size/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<Size, MappingGranularity>::DeriveState(u32* currentMappings, GPU& gpu)
+NonStupidBitField<Size/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<Size, MappingGranularity>::DeriveState(const u32* currentMappings, GPU& gpu)
 {
     NonStupidBitField<Size/VRAMDirtyGranularity> result;
     u16 banksToBeZeroed = 0;
@@ -1131,12 +1131,12 @@ NonStupidBitField<Size/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<Size, MappingGranul
     return result;
 }
 
-template NonStupidBitField<32*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<32*1024, 8*1024>::DeriveState(u32*, GPU& gpu);
-template NonStupidBitField<8*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<8*1024, 8*1024>::DeriveState(u32*, GPU& gpu);
-template NonStupidBitField<512*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<512*1024, 128*1024>::DeriveState(u32*, GPU& gpu);
-template NonStupidBitField<128*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<128*1024, 16*1024>::DeriveState(u32*, GPU& gpu);
-template NonStupidBitField<256*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<256*1024, 16*1024>::DeriveState(u32*, GPU& gpu);
-template NonStupidBitField<512*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<512*1024, 16*1024>::DeriveState(u32*, GPU& gpu);
+template NonStupidBitField<32*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<32*1024, 8*1024>::DeriveState(const u32*, GPU& gpu);
+template NonStupidBitField<8*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<8*1024, 8*1024>::DeriveState(const u32*, GPU& gpu);
+template NonStupidBitField<512*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<512*1024, 128*1024>::DeriveState(const u32*, GPU& gpu);
+template NonStupidBitField<128*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<128*1024, 16*1024>::DeriveState(const u32*, GPU& gpu);
+template NonStupidBitField<256*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<256*1024, 16*1024>::DeriveState(const u32*, GPU& gpu);
+template NonStupidBitField<512*1024/VRAMDirtyGranularity> VRAMTrackingSet<512*1024, 16*1024>::DeriveState(const u32*, GPU& gpu);
 
 
 
diff --git a/src/GPU.h b/src/GPU.h
index ee7311a6..e070db78 100644
--- a/src/GPU.h
+++ b/src/GPU.h
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ struct VRAMTrackingSet
             Mapping[i] = 0x8000;
         }
     }
-    NonStupidBitField<Size/VRAMDirtyGranularity> DeriveState(u32* currentMappings, GPU& gpu);
+    NonStupidBitField<Size/VRAMDirtyGranularity> DeriveState(const u32* currentMappings, GPU& gpu);
 };
 
 class GPU
diff --git a/src/GPU3D.cpp b/src/GPU3D.cpp
index 7e7df244..ac29a1e4 100644
--- a/src/GPU3D.cpp
+++ b/src/GPU3D.cpp
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ void MatrixLoadIdentity(s32* m);
 
 GPU3D::GPU3D(melonDS::NDS& nds, std::unique_ptr<Renderer3D>&& renderer) noexcept :
     NDS(nds),
-    CurrentRenderer(renderer ? std::move(renderer) : std::make_unique<SoftRenderer>(nds.GPU))
+    CurrentRenderer(renderer ? std::move(renderer) : std::make_unique<SoftRenderer>())
 {
 }
 
@@ -2367,20 +2367,20 @@ void GPU3D::CheckFIFODMA() noexcept
         NDS.CheckDMAs(0, 0x07);
 }
 
-void GPU3D::VCount144() noexcept
+void GPU3D::VCount144(GPU& gpu) noexcept
 {
-    CurrentRenderer->VCount144();
+    CurrentRenderer->VCount144(gpu);
 }
 
-void GPU3D::RestartFrame() noexcept
+void GPU3D::RestartFrame(GPU& gpu) noexcept
 {
-    CurrentRenderer->RestartFrame();
+    CurrentRenderer->RestartFrame(gpu);
 }
 
-void GPU3D::Stop() noexcept
+void GPU3D::Stop(const GPU& gpu) noexcept
 {
     if (CurrentRenderer)
-        CurrentRenderer->Stop();
+        CurrentRenderer->Stop(gpu);
 }
 
 
@@ -2473,9 +2473,9 @@ void GPU3D::VBlank() noexcept
     }
 }
 
-void GPU3D::VCount215() noexcept
+void GPU3D::VCount215(GPU& gpu) noexcept
 {
-    CurrentRenderer->RenderFrame();
+    CurrentRenderer->RenderFrame(gpu);
 }
 
 void GPU3D::SetRenderXPos(u16 xpos) noexcept
@@ -2935,10 +2935,10 @@ void GPU3D::Write32(u32 addr, u32 val) noexcept
     Log(LogLevel::Debug, "unknown GPU3D write32 %08X %08X\n", addr, val);
 }
 
-void GPU3D::Blit() noexcept
+void GPU3D::Blit(const GPU& gpu) noexcept
 {
     if (CurrentRenderer)
-        CurrentRenderer->Blit();
+        CurrentRenderer->Blit(gpu);
 }
 
 Renderer3D::Renderer3D(bool Accelerated)
diff --git a/src/GPU3D.h b/src/GPU3D.h
index eb975c68..0c900c6c 100644
--- a/src/GPU3D.h
+++ b/src/GPU3D.h
@@ -101,12 +101,12 @@ public:
     void CheckFIFOIRQ() noexcept;
     void CheckFIFODMA() noexcept;
 
-    void VCount144() noexcept;
+    void VCount144(GPU& gpu) noexcept;
     void VBlank() noexcept;
-    void VCount215() noexcept;
+    void VCount215(GPU& gpu) noexcept;
 
-    void RestartFrame() noexcept;
-    void Stop() noexcept;
+    void RestartFrame(GPU& gpu) noexcept;
+    void Stop(const GPU& gpu) noexcept;
 
     void SetRenderXPos(u16 xpos) noexcept;
     [[nodiscard]] u16 GetRenderXPos() const noexcept { return RenderXPos; }
@@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ public:
     void Write8(u32 addr, u8 val) noexcept;
     void Write16(u32 addr, u16 val) noexcept;
     void Write32(u32 addr, u32 val) noexcept;
-    void Blit() noexcept;
+    void Blit(const GPU& gpu) noexcept;
 private:
     melonDS::NDS& NDS;
     typedef union
@@ -334,19 +334,19 @@ public:
     Renderer3D(const Renderer3D&) = delete;
     Renderer3D& operator=(const Renderer3D&) = delete;
 
-    virtual void Reset() = 0;
+    virtual void Reset(GPU& gpu) = 0;
 
     // This "Accelerated" flag currently communicates if the framebuffer should
     // be allocated differently and other little misc handlers. Ideally there
     // are more detailed "traits" that we can ask of the Renderer3D type
     const bool Accelerated;
 
-    virtual void VCount144() {};
-    virtual void Stop() {}
-    virtual void RenderFrame() = 0;
-    virtual void RestartFrame() {};
+    virtual void VCount144(GPU& gpu) {};
+    virtual void Stop(const GPU& gpu) {}
+    virtual void RenderFrame(GPU& gpu) = 0;
+    virtual void RestartFrame(GPU& gpu) {};
     virtual u32* GetLine(int line) = 0;
-    virtual void Blit() {};
+    virtual void Blit(const GPU& gpu) {};
     virtual void PrepareCaptureFrame() {}
 protected:
     Renderer3D(bool Accelerated);
diff --git a/src/GPU3D_OpenGL.cpp b/src/GPU3D_OpenGL.cpp
index 55a034cd..27711a89 100644
--- a/src/GPU3D_OpenGL.cpp
+++ b/src/GPU3D_OpenGL.cpp
@@ -97,9 +97,8 @@ void SetupDefaultTexParams(GLuint tex)
     glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, GL_NEAREST);
 }
 
-GLRenderer::GLRenderer(GLCompositor&& compositor, melonDS::GPU& gpu) noexcept :
+GLRenderer::GLRenderer(GLCompositor&& compositor) noexcept :
     Renderer3D(true),
-    GPU(gpu),
     CurGLCompositor(std::move(compositor))
 {
     // GLRenderer::New() will be used to actually initialize the renderer;
@@ -107,7 +106,7 @@ GLRenderer::GLRenderer(GLCompositor&& compositor, melonDS::GPU& gpu) noexcept :
     // so we can just let the destructor clean up a half-initialized renderer.
 }
 
-std::unique_ptr<GLRenderer> GLRenderer::New(melonDS::GPU& gpu) noexcept
+std::unique_ptr<GLRenderer> GLRenderer::New() noexcept
 {
     assert(glEnable != nullptr);
 
@@ -117,7 +116,7 @@ std::unique_ptr<GLRenderer> GLRenderer::New(melonDS::GPU& gpu) noexcept
 
     // Will be returned if the initialization succeeds,
     // or cleaned up via RAII if it fails.
-    std::unique_ptr<GLRenderer> result = std::unique_ptr<GLRenderer>(new GLRenderer(std::move(*compositor), gpu));
+    std::unique_ptr<GLRenderer> result = std::unique_ptr<GLRenderer>(new GLRenderer(std::move(*compositor)));
     compositor = std::nullopt;
 
     glEnable(GL_DEPTH_TEST);
@@ -333,7 +332,7 @@ GLRenderer::~GLRenderer()
     }
 }
 
-void GLRenderer::Reset()
+void GLRenderer::Reset(GPU& gpu)
 {
     // This is where the compositor's Reset() method would be called,
     // except there's no such method right now.
@@ -786,14 +785,14 @@ int GLRenderer::RenderPolygonEdgeBatch(int i) const
     return numpolys;
 }
 
-void GLRenderer::RenderSceneChunk(int y, int h)
+void GLRenderer::RenderSceneChunk(const GPU3D& gpu3d, int y, int h)
 {
     u32 flags = 0;
-    if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[0]->WBuffer) flags |= RenderFlag_WBuffer;
+    if (gpu3d.RenderPolygonRAM[0]->WBuffer) flags |= RenderFlag_WBuffer;
 
     if (h != 192) glScissor(0, y<<ScaleFactor, 256<<ScaleFactor, h<<ScaleFactor);
 
-    GLboolean fogenable = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<7)) ? GL_TRUE : GL_FALSE;
+    GLboolean fogenable = (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<7)) ? GL_TRUE : GL_FALSE;
 
     // TODO: proper 'equal' depth test!
     // (has margin of +-0x200 in Z-buffer mode, +-0xFF in W-buffer mode)
@@ -865,7 +864,7 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderSceneChunk(int y, int h)
     glEnable(GL_BLEND);
     glBlendEquationSeparate(GL_FUNC_ADD, GL_MAX);
 
-    if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))
+    if (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))
         glBlendFuncSeparate(GL_SRC_ALPHA, GL_ONE_MINUS_SRC_ALPHA, GL_ONE, GL_ONE);
     else
         glBlendFuncSeparate(GL_ONE, GL_ZERO, GL_ONE, GL_ONE);
@@ -877,7 +876,7 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderSceneChunk(int y, int h)
         // pass 2: if needed, render translucent pixels that are against background pixels
         // when background alpha is zero, those need to be rendered with blending disabled
 
-        if ((GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 & 0x001F0000) == 0)
+        if ((gpu3d.RenderClearAttr1 & 0x001F0000) == 0)
         {
             glDisable(GL_BLEND);
 
@@ -941,7 +940,7 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderSceneChunk(int y, int h)
                     if (rp->PolyData->IsShadow)
                     {
                         // shadow against clear-plane will only pass if its polyID matches that of the clear plane
-                        u32 clrpolyid = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 24) & 0x3F;
+                        u32 clrpolyid = (gpu3d.RenderClearAttr1 >> 24) & 0x3F;
                         if (polyid != clrpolyid) { i++; continue; }
 
                         glEnable(GL_BLEND);
@@ -1089,7 +1088,7 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderSceneChunk(int y, int h)
         }
     }
 
-    if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & 0x00A0) // fog/edge enabled
+    if (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & 0x00A0) // fog/edge enabled
     {
         glColorMaski(0, GL_TRUE, GL_TRUE, GL_TRUE, GL_TRUE);
         glColorMaski(1, GL_FALSE, GL_FALSE, GL_FALSE, GL_FALSE);
@@ -1111,7 +1110,7 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderSceneChunk(int y, int h)
         glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, ClearVertexBufferID);
         glBindVertexArray(ClearVertexArrayID);
 
-        if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<5))
+        if (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<5))
         {
             // edge marking
             // TODO: depth/polyid values at screen edges
@@ -1123,19 +1122,19 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderSceneChunk(int y, int h)
             glDrawArrays(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, 2*3);
         }
 
-        if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<7))
+        if (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<7))
         {
             // fog
 
             glUseProgram(FinalPassFogShader[2]);
 
-            if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<6))
+            if (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<6))
                 glBlendFuncSeparate(GL_ZERO, GL_ONE, GL_CONSTANT_COLOR, GL_ONE_MINUS_SRC_ALPHA);
             else
                 glBlendFuncSeparate(GL_CONSTANT_COLOR, GL_ONE_MINUS_SRC_ALPHA, GL_CONSTANT_COLOR, GL_ONE_MINUS_SRC_ALPHA);
 
             {
-                u32 c = GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogColor;
+                u32 c = gpu3d.RenderFogColor;
                 u32 r = c & 0x1F;
                 u32 g = (c >> 5) & 0x1F;
                 u32 b = (c >> 10) & 0x1F;
@@ -1150,7 +1149,7 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderSceneChunk(int y, int h)
 }
 
 
-void GLRenderer::RenderFrame()
+void GLRenderer::RenderFrame(GPU& gpu)
 {
     CurShaderID = -1;
 
@@ -1159,11 +1158,11 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderFrame()
 
     ShaderConfig.uScreenSize[0] = ScreenW;
     ShaderConfig.uScreenSize[1] = ScreenH;
-    ShaderConfig.uDispCnt = GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt;
+    ShaderConfig.uDispCnt = gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt;
 
     for (int i = 0; i < 32; i++)
     {
-        u16 c = GPU.GPU3D.RenderToonTable[i];
+        u16 c = gpu.GPU3D.RenderToonTable[i];
         u32 r = c & 0x1F;
         u32 g = (c >> 5) & 0x1F;
         u32 b = (c >> 10) & 0x1F;
@@ -1175,7 +1174,7 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderFrame()
 
     for (int i = 0; i < 8; i++)
     {
-        u16 c = GPU.GPU3D.RenderEdgeTable[i];
+        u16 c = gpu.GPU3D.RenderEdgeTable[i];
         u32 r = c & 0x1F;
         u32 g = (c >> 5) & 0x1F;
         u32 b = (c >> 10) & 0x1F;
@@ -1186,7 +1185,7 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderFrame()
     }
 
     {
-        u32 c = GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogColor;
+        u32 c = gpu.GPU3D.RenderFogColor;
         u32 r = c & 0x1F;
         u32 g = (c >> 5) & 0x1F;
         u32 b = (c >> 10) & 0x1F;
@@ -1200,12 +1199,12 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderFrame()
 
     for (int i = 0; i < 34; i++)
     {
-        u8 d = GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogDensityTable[i];
+        u8 d = gpu.GPU3D.RenderFogDensityTable[i];
         ShaderConfig.uFogDensity[i][0] = (float)d / 127.0;
     }
 
-    ShaderConfig.uFogOffset = GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogOffset;
-    ShaderConfig.uFogShift = GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogShift;
+    ShaderConfig.uFogOffset = gpu.GPU3D.RenderFogOffset;
+    ShaderConfig.uFogShift = gpu.GPU3D.RenderFogShift;
 
     glBindBuffer(GL_UNIFORM_BUFFER, ShaderConfigUBO);
     void* unibuf = glMapBuffer(GL_UNIFORM_BUFFER, GL_WRITE_ONLY);
@@ -1218,13 +1217,13 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderFrame()
     glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, TexMemID);
     for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++)
     {
-        u32 mask = GPU.VRAMMap_Texture[i];
+        u32 mask = gpu.VRAMMap_Texture[i];
         u8* vram;
         if (!mask) continue;
-        else if (mask & (1<<0)) vram = GPU.VRAM_A;
-        else if (mask & (1<<1)) vram = GPU.VRAM_B;
-        else if (mask & (1<<2)) vram = GPU.VRAM_C;
-        else if (mask & (1<<3)) vram = GPU.VRAM_D;
+        else if (mask & (1<<0)) vram = gpu.VRAM_A;
+        else if (mask & (1<<1)) vram = gpu.VRAM_B;
+        else if (mask & (1<<2)) vram = gpu.VRAM_C;
+        else if (mask & (1<<3)) vram = gpu.VRAM_D;
 
         glTexSubImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, 0, i*128, 1024, 128, GL_RED_INTEGER, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, vram);
     }
@@ -1234,12 +1233,12 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderFrame()
     for (int i = 0; i < 6; i++)
     {
         // 6 x 16K chunks
-        u32 mask = GPU.VRAMMap_TexPal[i];
+        u32 mask = gpu.VRAMMap_TexPal[i];
         u8* vram;
         if (!mask) continue;
-        else if (mask & (1<<4)) vram = &GPU.VRAM_E[(i&3)*0x4000];
-        else if (mask & (1<<5)) vram = GPU.VRAM_F;
-        else if (mask & (1<<6)) vram = GPU.VRAM_G;
+        else if (mask & (1<<4)) vram = &gpu.VRAM_E[(i&3)*0x4000];
+        else if (mask & (1<<5)) vram = gpu.VRAM_F;
+        else if (mask & (1<<6)) vram = gpu.VRAM_G;
 
         glTexSubImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, 0, i*8, 1024, 8, GL_RGBA, GL_UNSIGNED_SHORT_1_5_5_5_REV, vram);
     }
@@ -1264,13 +1263,13 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderFrame()
         glUseProgram(ClearShaderPlain[2]);
         glDepthFunc(GL_ALWAYS);
 
-        u32 r = GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 & 0x1F;
-        u32 g = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 5) & 0x1F;
-        u32 b = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 10) & 0x1F;
-        u32 fog = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 15) & 0x1;
-        u32 a = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 16) & 0x1F;
-        u32 polyid = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 24) & 0x3F;
-        u32 z = ((GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr2 & 0x7FFF) * 0x200) + 0x1FF;
+        u32 r = gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 & 0x1F;
+        u32 g = (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 5) & 0x1F;
+        u32 b = (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 10) & 0x1F;
+        u32 fog = (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 15) & 0x1;
+        u32 a = (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 16) & 0x1F;
+        u32 polyid = (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 24) & 0x3F;
+        u32 z = ((gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr2 & 0x7FFF) * 0x200) + 0x1FF;
 
         glStencilFunc(GL_ALWAYS, 0xFF, 0xFF);
         glStencilOp(GL_REPLACE, GL_REPLACE, GL_REPLACE);
@@ -1289,20 +1288,20 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderFrame()
         glDrawArrays(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, 2*3);
     }
 
-    if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderNumPolygons)
+    if (gpu.GPU3D.RenderNumPolygons)
     {
         // render shit here
         u32 flags = 0;
-        if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[0]->WBuffer) flags |= RenderFlag_WBuffer;
+        if (gpu.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[0]->WBuffer) flags |= RenderFlag_WBuffer;
 
         int npolys = 0;
         int firsttrans = -1;
-        for (u32 i = 0; i < GPU.GPU3D.RenderNumPolygons; i++)
+        for (u32 i = 0; i < gpu.GPU3D.RenderNumPolygons; i++)
         {
-            if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[i]->Degenerate) continue;
+            if (gpu.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[i]->Degenerate) continue;
 
-            SetupPolygon(&PolygonList[npolys], GPU.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[i]);
-            if (firsttrans < 0 && GPU.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[i]->Translucent)
+            SetupPolygon(&PolygonList[npolys], gpu.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[i]);
+            if (firsttrans < 0 && gpu.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[i]->Translucent)
                 firsttrans = npolys;
 
             npolys++;
@@ -1319,15 +1318,15 @@ void GLRenderer::RenderFrame()
         glBufferSubData(GL_ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0, NumIndices * 2, IndexBuffer);
         glBufferSubData(GL_ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, EdgeIndicesOffset * 2, NumEdgeIndices * 2, IndexBuffer + EdgeIndicesOffset);
 
-        RenderSceneChunk(0, 192);
+        RenderSceneChunk(gpu.GPU3D, 0, 192);
     }
 
     FrontBuffer = FrontBuffer ? 0 : 1;
 }
 
-void GLRenderer::Stop()
+void GLRenderer::Stop(const GPU& gpu)
 {
-    CurGLCompositor.Stop(GPU);
+    CurGLCompositor.Stop(gpu);
 }
 
 void GLRenderer::PrepareCaptureFrame()
@@ -1345,9 +1344,9 @@ void GLRenderer::PrepareCaptureFrame()
     glReadPixels(0, 0, 256, 192, GL_BGRA, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, NULL);
 }
 
-void GLRenderer::Blit()
+void GLRenderer::Blit(const GPU& gpu)
 {
-    CurGLCompositor.RenderFrame(GPU, *this);
+    CurGLCompositor.RenderFrame(gpu, *this);
 }
 
 u32* GLRenderer::GetLine(int line)
diff --git a/src/GPU3D_OpenGL.h b/src/GPU3D_OpenGL.h
index 286d9f58..c30232ca 100644
--- a/src/GPU3D_OpenGL.h
+++ b/src/GPU3D_OpenGL.h
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ class GLRenderer : public Renderer3D
 {
 public:
     ~GLRenderer() override;
-    void Reset() override;
+    void Reset(GPU& gpu) override;
 
     void SetRenderSettings(bool betterpolygons, int scale) noexcept;
     void SetBetterPolygons(bool betterpolygons) noexcept;
@@ -39,22 +39,22 @@ public:
     [[nodiscard]] bool GetBetterPolygons() const noexcept { return BetterPolygons; }
     [[nodiscard]] int GetScaleFactor() const noexcept { return ScaleFactor; }
 
-    void VCount144() override {};
-    void RenderFrame() override;
-    void Stop() override;
+    void VCount144(GPU& gpu) override {};
+    void RenderFrame(GPU& gpu) override;
+    void Stop(const GPU& gpu) override;
     u32* GetLine(int line) override;
 
     void SetupAccelFrame();
     void PrepareCaptureFrame() override;
-    void Blit() override;
+    void Blit(const GPU& gpu) override;
 
     [[nodiscard]] const GLCompositor& GetCompositor() const noexcept { return CurGLCompositor; }
     GLCompositor& GetCompositor() noexcept { return CurGLCompositor; }
 
-    static std::unique_ptr<GLRenderer> New(melonDS::GPU& gpu) noexcept;
+    static std::unique_ptr<GLRenderer> New() noexcept;
 private:
     // Used by New()
-    GLRenderer(GLCompositor&& compositor, GPU& gpu) noexcept;
+    GLRenderer(GLCompositor&& compositor) noexcept;
 
     // GL version requirements
     // * texelFetch: 3.0 (GLSL 1.30)     (3.2/1.50 for MS)
@@ -74,7 +74,6 @@ private:
         u32 RenderKey;
     };
 
-    melonDS::GPU& GPU;
     GLCompositor CurGLCompositor;
     RendererPolygon PolygonList[2048] {};
 
@@ -86,7 +85,7 @@ private:
     int RenderSinglePolygon(int i) const;
     int RenderPolygonBatch(int i) const;
     int RenderPolygonEdgeBatch(int i) const;
-    void RenderSceneChunk(int y, int h);
+    void RenderSceneChunk(const GPU3D& gpu3d, int y, int h);
 
     enum
     {
diff --git a/src/GPU3D_Soft.cpp b/src/GPU3D_Soft.cpp
index 894ac94a..c96464a6 100644
--- a/src/GPU3D_Soft.cpp
+++ b/src/GPU3D_Soft.cpp
@@ -42,14 +42,16 @@ void SoftRenderer::StopRenderThread()
     }
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::SetupRenderThread()
+void SoftRenderer::SetupRenderThread(GPU& gpu)
 {
     if (Threaded)
     {
         if (!RenderThreadRunning.load(std::memory_order_relaxed))
         {
             RenderThreadRunning = true;
-            RenderThread = Platform::Thread_Create(std::bind(&SoftRenderer::RenderThreadFunc, this));
+            RenderThread = Platform::Thread_Create([this, &gpu]() {
+                RenderThreadFunc(gpu);
+            });
         }
 
         // otherwise more than one frame can be queued up at once
@@ -71,8 +73,8 @@ void SoftRenderer::SetupRenderThread()
 }
 
 
-SoftRenderer::SoftRenderer(melonDS::GPU& gpu, bool threaded) noexcept
-    : Renderer3D(false), GPU(gpu), Threaded(threaded)
+SoftRenderer::SoftRenderer(bool threaded) noexcept
+    : Renderer3D(false), Threaded(threaded)
 {
     Sema_RenderStart = Platform::Semaphore_Create();
     Sema_RenderDone = Platform::Semaphore_Create();
@@ -92,7 +94,7 @@ SoftRenderer::~SoftRenderer()
     Platform::Semaphore_Free(Sema_ScanlineCount);
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::Reset()
+void SoftRenderer::Reset(GPU& gpu)
 {
     memset(ColorBuffer, 0, BufferSize * 2 * 4);
     memset(DepthBuffer, 0, BufferSize * 2 * 4);
@@ -100,19 +102,19 @@ void SoftRenderer::Reset()
 
     PrevIsShadowMask = false;
 
-    SetupRenderThread();
+    SetupRenderThread(gpu);
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::SetThreaded(bool threaded) noexcept
+void SoftRenderer::SetThreaded(bool threaded, GPU& gpu) noexcept
 {
     if (Threaded != threaded)
     {
         Threaded = threaded;
-        SetupRenderThread();
+        SetupRenderThread(gpu);
     }
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::TextureLookup(u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* color, u8* alpha) const
+void SoftRenderer::TextureLookup(const GPU& gpu, u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* color, u8* alpha) const
 {
     u32 vramaddr = (texparam & 0xFFFF) << 3;
 
@@ -167,10 +169,10 @@ void SoftRenderer::TextureLookup(u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* co
     case 1: // A3I5
         {
             vramaddr += ((t * width) + s);
-            u8 pixel = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr);
+            u8 pixel = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr, gpu);
 
             texpal <<= 4;
-            *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + ((pixel&0x1F)<<1));
+            *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + ((pixel&0x1F)<<1), gpu);
             *alpha = ((pixel >> 3) & 0x1C) + (pixel >> 6);
         }
         break;
@@ -178,12 +180,12 @@ void SoftRenderer::TextureLookup(u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* co
     case 2: // 4-color
         {
             vramaddr += (((t * width) + s) >> 2);
-            u8 pixel = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr);
+            u8 pixel = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr, gpu);
             pixel >>= ((s & 0x3) << 1);
             pixel &= 0x3;
 
             texpal <<= 3;
-            *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + (pixel<<1));
+            *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + (pixel<<1), gpu);
             *alpha = (pixel==0) ? alpha0 : 31;
         }
         break;
@@ -191,12 +193,12 @@ void SoftRenderer::TextureLookup(u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* co
     case 3: // 16-color
         {
             vramaddr += (((t * width) + s) >> 1);
-            u8 pixel = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr);
+            u8 pixel = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr, gpu);
             if (s & 0x1) pixel >>= 4;
             else         pixel &= 0xF;
 
             texpal <<= 4;
-            *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + (pixel<<1));
+            *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + (pixel<<1), gpu);
             *alpha = (pixel==0) ? alpha0 : 31;
         }
         break;
@@ -204,10 +206,10 @@ void SoftRenderer::TextureLookup(u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* co
     case 4: // 256-color
         {
             vramaddr += ((t * width) + s);
-            u8 pixel = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr);
+            u8 pixel = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr, gpu);
 
             texpal <<= 4;
-            *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + (pixel<<1));
+            *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + (pixel<<1), gpu);
             *alpha = (pixel==0) ? alpha0 : 31;
         }
         break;
@@ -221,30 +223,30 @@ void SoftRenderer::TextureLookup(u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* co
             if (vramaddr >= 0x40000)
                 slot1addr += 0x10000;
 
-            u8 val = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr);
+            u8 val = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr, gpu);
             val >>= (2 * (s & 0x3));
 
-            u16 palinfo = ReadVRAM_Texture<u16>(slot1addr);
+            u16 palinfo = ReadVRAM_Texture<u16>(slot1addr, gpu);
             u32 paloffset = (palinfo & 0x3FFF) << 2;
             texpal <<= 4;
 
             switch (val & 0x3)
             {
             case 0:
-                *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset);
+                *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset, gpu);
                 *alpha = 31;
                 break;
 
             case 1:
-                *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 2);
+                *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 2, gpu);
                 *alpha = 31;
                 break;
 
             case 2:
                 if ((palinfo >> 14) == 1)
                 {
-                    u16 color0 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset);
-                    u16 color1 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 2);
+                    u16 color0 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset, gpu);
+                    u16 color1 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 2, gpu);
 
                     u32 r0 = color0 & 0x001F;
                     u32 g0 = color0 & 0x03E0;
@@ -261,8 +263,8 @@ void SoftRenderer::TextureLookup(u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* co
                 }
                 else if ((palinfo >> 14) == 3)
                 {
-                    u16 color0 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset);
-                    u16 color1 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 2);
+                    u16 color0 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset, gpu);
+                    u16 color1 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 2, gpu);
 
                     u32 r0 = color0 & 0x001F;
                     u32 g0 = color0 & 0x03E0;
@@ -278,20 +280,20 @@ void SoftRenderer::TextureLookup(u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* co
                     *color = r | g | b;
                 }
                 else
-                    *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 4);
+                    *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 4, gpu);
                 *alpha = 31;
                 break;
 
             case 3:
                 if ((palinfo >> 14) == 2)
                 {
-                    *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 6);
+                    *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 6, gpu);
                     *alpha = 31;
                 }
                 else if ((palinfo >> 14) == 3)
                 {
-                    u16 color0 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset);
-                    u16 color1 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 2);
+                    u16 color0 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset, gpu);
+                    u16 color1 = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + paloffset + 2, gpu);
 
                     u32 r0 = color0 & 0x001F;
                     u32 g0 = color0 & 0x03E0;
@@ -320,10 +322,10 @@ void SoftRenderer::TextureLookup(u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* co
     case 6: // A5I3
         {
             vramaddr += ((t * width) + s);
-            u8 pixel = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr);
+            u8 pixel = ReadVRAM_Texture<u8>(vramaddr, gpu);
 
             texpal <<= 4;
-            *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + ((pixel&0x7)<<1));
+            *color = ReadVRAM_TexPal<u16>(texpal + ((pixel&0x7)<<1), gpu);
             *alpha = (pixel >> 3);
         }
         break;
@@ -331,7 +333,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::TextureLookup(u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* co
     case 7: // direct color
         {
             vramaddr += (((t * width) + s) << 1);
-            *color = ReadVRAM_Texture<u16>(vramaddr);
+            *color = ReadVRAM_Texture<u16>(vramaddr, gpu);
             *alpha = (*color & 0x8000) ? 31 : 0;
         }
         break;
@@ -388,7 +390,7 @@ bool DepthTest_LessThan_FrontFacing(s32 dstz, s32 z, u32 dstattr)
     return false;
 }
 
-u32 SoftRenderer::AlphaBlend(u32 srccolor, u32 dstcolor, u32 alpha) const noexcept
+u32 SoftRenderer::AlphaBlend(const GPU3D& gpu3d, u32 srccolor, u32 dstcolor, u32 alpha) const noexcept
 {
     u32 dstalpha = dstcolor >> 24;
 
@@ -399,7 +401,7 @@ u32 SoftRenderer::AlphaBlend(u32 srccolor, u32 dstcolor, u32 alpha) const noexce
     u32 srcG = (srccolor >> 8) & 0x3F;
     u32 srcB = (srccolor >> 16) & 0x3F;
 
-    if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))
+    if (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))
     {
         u32 dstR = dstcolor & 0x3F;
         u32 dstG = (dstcolor >> 8) & 0x3F;
@@ -418,7 +420,7 @@ u32 SoftRenderer::AlphaBlend(u32 srccolor, u32 dstcolor, u32 alpha) const noexce
     return srcR | (srcG << 8) | (srcB << 16) | (dstalpha << 24);
 }
 
-u32 SoftRenderer::RenderPixel(const Polygon* polygon, u8 vr, u8 vg, u8 vb, s16 s, s16 t) const
+u32 SoftRenderer::RenderPixel(const GPU& gpu, const Polygon* polygon, u8 vr, u8 vg, u8 vb, s16 s, s16 t) const
 {
     u8 r, g, b, a;
 
@@ -428,7 +430,7 @@ u32 SoftRenderer::RenderPixel(const Polygon* polygon, u8 vr, u8 vg, u8 vb, s16 s
 
     if (blendmode == 2)
     {
-        if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<1))
+        if (gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<1))
         {
             // highlight mode: color is calculated normally
             // except all vertex color components are set
@@ -442,7 +444,7 @@ u32 SoftRenderer::RenderPixel(const Polygon* polygon, u8 vr, u8 vg, u8 vb, s16 s
         {
             // toon mode: vertex color is replaced by toon color
 
-            u16 tooncolor = GPU.GPU3D.RenderToonTable[vr >> 1];
+            u16 tooncolor = gpu.GPU3D.RenderToonTable[vr >> 1];
 
             vr = (tooncolor << 1) & 0x3E; if (vr) vr++;
             vg = (tooncolor >> 4) & 0x3E; if (vg) vg++;
@@ -450,12 +452,12 @@ u32 SoftRenderer::RenderPixel(const Polygon* polygon, u8 vr, u8 vg, u8 vb, s16 s
         }
     }
 
-    if ((GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<0)) && (((polygon->TexParam >> 26) & 0x7) != 0))
+    if ((gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<0)) && (((polygon->TexParam >> 26) & 0x7) != 0))
     {
         u8 tr, tg, tb;
 
         u16 tcolor; u8 talpha;
-        TextureLookup(polygon->TexParam, polygon->TexPalette, s, t, &tcolor, &talpha);
+        TextureLookup(gpu, polygon->TexParam, polygon->TexPalette, s, t, &tcolor, &talpha);
 
         tr = (tcolor << 1) & 0x3E; if (tr) tr++;
         tg = (tcolor >> 4) & 0x3E; if (tg) tg++;
@@ -503,9 +505,9 @@ u32 SoftRenderer::RenderPixel(const Polygon* polygon, u8 vr, u8 vg, u8 vb, s16 s
         a = polyalpha;
     }
 
-    if ((blendmode == 2) && (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<1)))
+    if ((blendmode == 2) && (gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<1)))
     {
-        u16 tooncolor = GPU.GPU3D.RenderToonTable[vr >> 1];
+        u16 tooncolor = gpu.GPU3D.RenderToonTable[vr >> 1];
 
         vr = (tooncolor << 1) & 0x3E; if (vr) vr++;
         vg = (tooncolor >> 4) & 0x3E; if (vg) vg++;
@@ -526,7 +528,7 @@ u32 SoftRenderer::RenderPixel(const Polygon* polygon, u8 vr, u8 vg, u8 vb, s16 s
     return r | (g << 8) | (b << 16) | (a << 24);
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::PlotTranslucentPixel(u32 pixeladdr, u32 color, u32 z, u32 polyattr, u32 shadow)
+void SoftRenderer::PlotTranslucentPixel(const GPU3D& gpu3d, u32 pixeladdr, u32 color, u32 z, u32 polyattr, u32 shadow)
 {
     u32 dstattr = AttrBuffer[pixeladdr];
     u32 attr = (polyattr & 0xE0F0) | ((polyattr >> 8) & 0xFF0000) | (1<<22) | (dstattr & 0xFF001F0F);
@@ -556,7 +558,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::PlotTranslucentPixel(u32 pixeladdr, u32 color, u32 z, u32 pol
     if (!(dstattr & (1<<15)))
         attr &= ~(1<<15);
 
-    color = AlphaBlend(color, ColorBuffer[pixeladdr], color>>24);
+    color = AlphaBlend(gpu3d, color, ColorBuffer[pixeladdr], color>>24);
 
     if (z != -1)
         DepthBuffer[pixeladdr] = z;
@@ -672,7 +674,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::SetupPolygon(SoftRenderer::RendererPolygon* rp, Polygon* poly
     }
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::RenderShadowMaskScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
+void SoftRenderer::RenderShadowMaskScanline(const GPU3D& gpu3d, RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
 {
     Polygon* polygon = rp->PolyData;
 
@@ -749,7 +751,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderShadowMaskScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
         std::swap(zl, zr);
 
         // CHECKME: edge fill rules for swapped opaque shadow mask polygons
-        if ((GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & ((1<<4)|(1<<5))) || ((polyalpha < 31) && (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))) || wireframe)
+        if ((gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & ((1<<4)|(1<<5))) || ((polyalpha < 31) && (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))) || wireframe)
         {
             l_filledge = true;
             r_filledge = true;
@@ -777,7 +779,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderShadowMaskScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
         rp->SlopeR.EdgeParams<false>(&r_edgelen, &r_edgecov);
 
         // CHECKME: edge fill rules for unswapped opaque shadow mask polygons
-        if ((GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & ((1<<4)|(1<<5))) || ((polyalpha < 31) && (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))) || wireframe)
+        if ((gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & ((1<<4)|(1<<5))) || ((polyalpha < 31) && (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))) || wireframe)
         {
             l_filledge = true;
             r_filledge = true;
@@ -798,7 +800,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderShadowMaskScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
     // similarly, we can perform alpha test early (checkme)
 
     if (wireframe) polyalpha = 31;
-    if (polyalpha <= GPU.GPU3D.RenderAlphaRef) return;
+    if (polyalpha <= gpu3d.RenderAlphaRef) return;
 
     // in wireframe mode, there are special rules for equal Z (TODO)
 
@@ -900,7 +902,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderShadowMaskScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
     rp->XR = rp->SlopeR.Step();
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygonScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
+void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygonScanline(const GPU& gpu, RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
 {
     Polygon* polygon = rp->PolyData;
 
@@ -984,7 +986,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygonScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
         // edges are always filled if antialiasing/edgemarking are enabled,
         // if the pixels are translucent and alpha blending is enabled, or if the polygon is wireframe
         // checkme: do swapped line polygons exist?
-        if ((GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & ((1<<4)|(1<<5))) || ((polyalpha < 31) && (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))) || wireframe)
+        if ((gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & ((1<<4)|(1<<5))) || ((polyalpha < 31) && (gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))) || wireframe)
         {
             l_filledge = true;
             r_filledge = true;
@@ -1019,7 +1021,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygonScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
         // * edges are filled if both sides are identical and fully overlapping
         // edges are always filled if antialiasing/edgemarking are enabled,
         // if the pixels are translucent and alpha blending is enabled, or if the polygon is wireframe
-        if ((GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & ((1<<4)|(1<<5))) || ((polyalpha < 31) && (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))) || wireframe)
+        if ((gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & ((1<<4)|(1<<5))) || ((polyalpha < 31) && (gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<3))) || wireframe)
         {
             l_filledge = true;
             r_filledge = true;
@@ -1118,17 +1120,17 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygonScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
         s16 s = interpX.Interpolate(sl, sr);
         s16 t = interpX.Interpolate(tl, tr);
 
-        u32 color = RenderPixel(polygon, vr>>3, vg>>3, vb>>3, s, t);
+        u32 color = RenderPixel(gpu, polygon, vr>>3, vg>>3, vb>>3, s, t);
         u8 alpha = color >> 24;
 
         // alpha test
-        if (alpha <= GPU.GPU3D.RenderAlphaRef) continue;
+        if (alpha <= gpu.GPU3D.RenderAlphaRef) continue;
 
         if (alpha == 31)
         {
             u32 attr = polyattr | edge;
 
-            if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<4))
+            if (gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<4))
             {
                 // anti-aliasing: all edges are rendered
 
@@ -1158,11 +1160,11 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygonScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
         else
         {
             if (!(polygon->Attr & (1<<11))) z = -1;
-            PlotTranslucentPixel(pixeladdr, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
+            PlotTranslucentPixel(gpu.GPU3D, pixeladdr, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
 
             // blend with bottom pixel too, if needed
             if ((dstattr & 0xF) && (pixeladdr < BufferSize))
-                PlotTranslucentPixel(pixeladdr+BufferSize, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
+                PlotTranslucentPixel(gpu.GPU3D, pixeladdr+BufferSize, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
         }
     }
 
@@ -1214,17 +1216,17 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygonScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
         s16 s = interpX.Interpolate(sl, sr);
         s16 t = interpX.Interpolate(tl, tr);
 
-        u32 color = RenderPixel(polygon, vr>>3, vg>>3, vb>>3, s, t);
+        u32 color = RenderPixel(gpu, polygon, vr>>3, vg>>3, vb>>3, s, t);
         u8 alpha = color >> 24;
 
         // alpha test
-        if (alpha <= GPU.GPU3D.RenderAlphaRef) continue;
+        if (alpha <= gpu.GPU3D.RenderAlphaRef) continue;
 
         if (alpha == 31)
         {
             u32 attr = polyattr | edge;
 
-            if ((GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<4)) && (attr & 0xF))
+            if ((gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<4)) && (attr & 0xF))
             {
                 // anti-aliasing: all edges are rendered
 
@@ -1247,11 +1249,11 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygonScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
         else
         {
             if (!(polygon->Attr & (1<<11))) z = -1;
-            PlotTranslucentPixel(pixeladdr, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
+            PlotTranslucentPixel(gpu.GPU3D, pixeladdr, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
 
             // blend with bottom pixel too, if needed
             if ((dstattr & 0xF) && (pixeladdr < BufferSize))
-                PlotTranslucentPixel(pixeladdr+BufferSize, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
+                PlotTranslucentPixel(gpu.GPU3D, pixeladdr+BufferSize, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
         }
     }
 
@@ -1306,17 +1308,17 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygonScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
         s16 s = interpX.Interpolate(sl, sr);
         s16 t = interpX.Interpolate(tl, tr);
 
-        u32 color = RenderPixel(polygon, vr>>3, vg>>3, vb>>3, s, t);
+        u32 color = RenderPixel(gpu, polygon, vr>>3, vg>>3, vb>>3, s, t);
         u8 alpha = color >> 24;
 
         // alpha test
-        if (alpha <= GPU.GPU3D.RenderAlphaRef) continue;
+        if (alpha <= gpu.GPU3D.RenderAlphaRef) continue;
 
         if (alpha == 31)
         {
             u32 attr = polyattr | edge;
 
-            if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<4))
+            if (gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<4))
             {
                 // anti-aliasing: all edges are rendered
 
@@ -1346,11 +1348,11 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygonScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
         else
         {
             if (!(polygon->Attr & (1<<11))) z = -1;
-            PlotTranslucentPixel(pixeladdr, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
+            PlotTranslucentPixel(gpu.GPU3D, pixeladdr, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
 
             // blend with bottom pixel too, if needed
             if ((dstattr & 0xF) && (pixeladdr < BufferSize))
-                PlotTranslucentPixel(pixeladdr+BufferSize, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
+                PlotTranslucentPixel(gpu.GPU3D, pixeladdr+BufferSize, color, z, polyattr, polygon->IsShadow);
         }
     }
 
@@ -1358,7 +1360,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygonScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y)
     rp->XR = rp->SlopeR.Step();
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::RenderScanline(s32 y, int npolys)
+void SoftRenderer::RenderScanline(const GPU& gpu, s32 y, int npolys)
 {
     for (int i = 0; i < npolys; i++)
     {
@@ -1368,19 +1370,19 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderScanline(s32 y, int npolys)
         if (y >= polygon->YTop && (y < polygon->YBottom || (y == polygon->YTop && polygon->YBottom == polygon->YTop)))
         {
             if (polygon->IsShadowMask)
-                RenderShadowMaskScanline(rp, y);
+                RenderShadowMaskScanline(gpu.GPU3D, rp, y);
             else
-                RenderPolygonScanline(rp, y);
+                RenderPolygonScanline(gpu, rp, y);
         }
     }
 }
 
-u32 SoftRenderer::CalculateFogDensity(u32 pixeladdr) const
+u32 SoftRenderer::CalculateFogDensity(const GPU3D& gpu3d, u32 pixeladdr) const
 {
     u32 z = DepthBuffer[pixeladdr];
     u32 densityid, densityfrac;
 
-    if (z < GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogOffset)
+    if (z < gpu3d.RenderFogOffset)
     {
         densityid = 0;
         densityfrac = 0;
@@ -1392,8 +1394,8 @@ u32 SoftRenderer::CalculateFogDensity(u32 pixeladdr) const
         // on hardware, the final value can overflow the 32-bit range with a shift big enough,
         // causing fog to 'wrap around' and accidentally apply to larger Z ranges
 
-        z -= GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogOffset;
-        z = (z >> 2) << GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogShift;
+        z -= gpu3d.RenderFogOffset;
+        z = (z >> 2) << gpu3d.RenderFogShift;
 
         densityid = z >> 17;
         if (densityid >= 32)
@@ -1407,20 +1409,20 @@ u32 SoftRenderer::CalculateFogDensity(u32 pixeladdr) const
 
     // checkme (may be too precise?)
     u32 density =
-        ((GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogDensityTable[densityid] * (0x20000-densityfrac)) +
-         (GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogDensityTable[densityid+1] * densityfrac)) >> 17;
+        ((gpu3d.RenderFogDensityTable[densityid] * (0x20000-densityfrac)) +
+         (gpu3d.RenderFogDensityTable[densityid+1] * densityfrac)) >> 17;
     if (density >= 127) density = 128;
 
     return density;
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::ScanlineFinalPass(s32 y)
+void SoftRenderer::ScanlineFinalPass(const GPU3D& gpu3d, s32 y)
 {
     // to consider:
     // clearing all polygon fog flags if the master flag isn't set?
     // merging all final pass loops into one?
 
-    if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<5))
+    if (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<5))
     {
         // edge marking
         // only applied to topmost pixels
@@ -1440,7 +1442,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::ScanlineFinalPass(s32 y)
                 ((polyid != (AttrBuffer[pixeladdr-ScanlineWidth] >> 24)) && (z < DepthBuffer[pixeladdr-ScanlineWidth])) ||
                 ((polyid != (AttrBuffer[pixeladdr+ScanlineWidth] >> 24)) && (z < DepthBuffer[pixeladdr+ScanlineWidth])))
             {
-                u16 edgecolor = GPU.GPU3D.RenderEdgeTable[polyid >> 3];
+                u16 edgecolor = gpu3d.RenderEdgeTable[polyid >> 3];
                 u32 edgeR = (edgecolor << 1) & 0x3E; if (edgeR) edgeR++;
                 u32 edgeG = (edgecolor >> 4) & 0x3E; if (edgeG) edgeG++;
                 u32 edgeB = (edgecolor >> 9) & 0x3E; if (edgeB) edgeB++;
@@ -1453,7 +1455,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::ScanlineFinalPass(s32 y)
         }
     }
 
-    if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<7))
+    if (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<7))
     {
         // fog
 
@@ -1466,12 +1468,12 @@ void SoftRenderer::ScanlineFinalPass(s32 y)
 
         // TODO: check the 'fog alpha glitch with small Z' GBAtek talks about
 
-        bool fogcolor = !(GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<6));
+        bool fogcolor = !(gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<6));
 
-        u32 fogR = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogColor << 1) & 0x3E; if (fogR) fogR++;
-        u32 fogG = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogColor >> 4) & 0x3E; if (fogG) fogG++;
-        u32 fogB = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogColor >> 9) & 0x3E; if (fogB) fogB++;
-        u32 fogA = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderFogColor >> 16) & 0x1F;
+        u32 fogR = (gpu3d.RenderFogColor << 1) & 0x3E; if (fogR) fogR++;
+        u32 fogG = (gpu3d.RenderFogColor >> 4) & 0x3E; if (fogG) fogG++;
+        u32 fogB = (gpu3d.RenderFogColor >> 9) & 0x3E; if (fogB) fogB++;
+        u32 fogA = (gpu3d.RenderFogColor >> 16) & 0x1F;
 
         for (int x = 0; x < 256; x++)
         {
@@ -1481,7 +1483,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::ScanlineFinalPass(s32 y)
             u32 attr = AttrBuffer[pixeladdr];
             if (attr & (1<<15))
             {
-                density = CalculateFogDensity(pixeladdr);
+                density = CalculateFogDensity(gpu3d, pixeladdr);
 
                 srccolor = ColorBuffer[pixeladdr];
                 srcR = srccolor & 0x3F;
@@ -1510,7 +1512,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::ScanlineFinalPass(s32 y)
             attr = AttrBuffer[pixeladdr];
             if (!(attr & (1<<15))) continue;
 
-            density = CalculateFogDensity(pixeladdr);
+            density = CalculateFogDensity(gpu3d, pixeladdr);
 
             srccolor = ColorBuffer[pixeladdr];
             srcR = srccolor & 0x3F;
@@ -1531,7 +1533,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::ScanlineFinalPass(s32 y)
         }
     }
 
-    if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<4))
+    if (gpu3d.RenderDispCnt & (1<<4))
     {
         // anti-aliasing
 
@@ -1584,10 +1586,10 @@ void SoftRenderer::ScanlineFinalPass(s32 y)
     }
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::ClearBuffers()
+void SoftRenderer::ClearBuffers(const GPU& gpu)
 {
-    u32 clearz = ((GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr2 & 0x7FFF) * 0x200) + 0x1FF;
-    u32 polyid = GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 & 0x3F000000; // this sets the opaque polygonID
+    u32 clearz = ((gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr2 & 0x7FFF) * 0x200) + 0x1FF;
+    u32 polyid = gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 & 0x3F000000; // this sets the opaque polygonID
 
     // fill screen borders for edge marking
 
@@ -1617,17 +1619,17 @@ void SoftRenderer::ClearBuffers()
 
     // clear the screen
 
-    if (GPU.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<14))
+    if (gpu.GPU3D.RenderDispCnt & (1<<14))
     {
-        u8 xoff = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr2 >> 16) & 0xFF;
-        u8 yoff = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr2 >> 24) & 0xFF;
+        u8 xoff = (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr2 >> 16) & 0xFF;
+        u8 yoff = (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr2 >> 24) & 0xFF;
 
         for (int y = 0; y < ScanlineWidth*192; y+=ScanlineWidth)
         {
             for (int x = 0; x < 256; x++)
             {
-                u16 val2 = ReadVRAM_Texture<u16>(0x40000 + (yoff << 9) + (xoff << 1));
-                u16 val3 = ReadVRAM_Texture<u16>(0x60000 + (yoff << 9) + (xoff << 1));
+                u16 val2 = ReadVRAM_Texture<u16>(0x40000 + (yoff << 9) + (xoff << 1), gpu);
+                u16 val3 = ReadVRAM_Texture<u16>(0x60000 + (yoff << 9) + (xoff << 1), gpu);
 
                 // TODO: confirm color conversion
                 u32 r = (val2 << 1) & 0x3E; if (r) r++;
@@ -1652,13 +1654,13 @@ void SoftRenderer::ClearBuffers()
     else
     {
         // TODO: confirm color conversion
-        u32 r = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 << 1) & 0x3E; if (r) r++;
-        u32 g = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 4) & 0x3E; if (g) g++;
-        u32 b = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 9) & 0x3E; if (b) b++;
-        u32 a = (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 16) & 0x1F;
+        u32 r = (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 << 1) & 0x3E; if (r) r++;
+        u32 g = (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 4) & 0x3E; if (g) g++;
+        u32 b = (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 9) & 0x3E; if (b) b++;
+        u32 a = (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 >> 16) & 0x1F;
         u32 color = r | (g << 8) | (b << 16) | (a << 24);
 
-        polyid |= (GPU.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 & 0x8000);
+        polyid |= (gpu.GPU3D.RenderClearAttr1 & 0x8000);
 
         for (int y = 0; y < ScanlineWidth*192; y+=ScanlineWidth)
         {
@@ -1673,7 +1675,7 @@ void SoftRenderer::ClearBuffers()
     }
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygons(bool threaded, Polygon** polygons, int npolys)
+void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygons(const GPU& gpu, bool threaded, Polygon** polygons, int npolys)
 {
     int j = 0;
     for (int i = 0; i < npolys; i++)
@@ -1682,38 +1684,38 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderPolygons(bool threaded, Polygon** polygons, int npolys)
         SetupPolygon(&PolygonList[j++], polygons[i]);
     }
 
-    RenderScanline(0, j);
+    RenderScanline(gpu, 0, j);
 
     for (s32 y = 1; y < 192; y++)
     {
-        RenderScanline(y, j);
-        ScanlineFinalPass(y-1);
+        RenderScanline(gpu, y, j);
+        ScanlineFinalPass(gpu.GPU3D, y-1);
 
         if (threaded)
             Platform::Semaphore_Post(Sema_ScanlineCount);
     }
 
-    ScanlineFinalPass(191);
+    ScanlineFinalPass(gpu.GPU3D, 191);
 
     if (threaded)
         Platform::Semaphore_Post(Sema_ScanlineCount);
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::VCount144()
+void SoftRenderer::VCount144(GPU& gpu)
 {
-    if (RenderThreadRunning.load(std::memory_order_relaxed) && !GPU.GPU3D.AbortFrame)
+    if (RenderThreadRunning.load(std::memory_order_relaxed) && !gpu.GPU3D.AbortFrame)
         Platform::Semaphore_Wait(Sema_RenderDone);
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::RenderFrame()
+void SoftRenderer::RenderFrame(GPU& gpu)
 {
-    auto textureDirty = GPU.VRAMDirty_Texture.DeriveState(GPU.VRAMMap_Texture, GPU);
-    auto texPalDirty = GPU.VRAMDirty_TexPal.DeriveState(GPU.VRAMMap_TexPal, GPU);
+    auto textureDirty = gpu.VRAMDirty_Texture.DeriveState(gpu.VRAMMap_Texture, gpu);
+    auto texPalDirty = gpu.VRAMDirty_TexPal.DeriveState(gpu.VRAMMap_TexPal, gpu);
 
-    bool textureChanged = GPU.MakeVRAMFlat_TextureCoherent(textureDirty);
-    bool texPalChanged = GPU.MakeVRAMFlat_TexPalCoherent(texPalDirty);
+    bool textureChanged = gpu.MakeVRAMFlat_TextureCoherent(textureDirty);
+    bool texPalChanged = gpu.MakeVRAMFlat_TexPalCoherent(texPalDirty);
 
-    FrameIdentical = !(textureChanged || texPalChanged) && GPU.GPU3D.RenderFrameIdentical;
+    FrameIdentical = !(textureChanged || texPalChanged) && gpu.GPU3D.RenderFrameIdentical;
 
     if (RenderThreadRunning.load(std::memory_order_relaxed))
     {
@@ -1721,17 +1723,17 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderFrame()
     }
     else if (!FrameIdentical)
     {
-        ClearBuffers();
-        RenderPolygons(false, &GPU.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[0], GPU.GPU3D.RenderNumPolygons);
+        ClearBuffers(gpu);
+        RenderPolygons(gpu, false, &gpu.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[0], gpu.GPU3D.RenderNumPolygons);
     }
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::RestartFrame()
+void SoftRenderer::RestartFrame(GPU& gpu)
 {
-    SetupRenderThread();
+    SetupRenderThread(gpu);
 }
 
-void SoftRenderer::RenderThreadFunc()
+void SoftRenderer::RenderThreadFunc(GPU& gpu)
 {
     for (;;)
     {
@@ -1745,8 +1747,8 @@ void SoftRenderer::RenderThreadFunc()
         }
         else
         {
-            ClearBuffers();
-            RenderPolygons(true, &GPU.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[0], GPU.GPU3D.RenderNumPolygons);
+            ClearBuffers(gpu);
+            RenderPolygons(gpu, true, &gpu.GPU3D.RenderPolygonRAM[0], gpu.GPU3D.RenderNumPolygons);
         }
 
         Platform::Semaphore_Post(Sema_RenderDone);
diff --git a/src/GPU3D_Soft.h b/src/GPU3D_Soft.h
index f405b2d8..8fb42013 100644
--- a/src/GPU3D_Soft.h
+++ b/src/GPU3D_Soft.h
@@ -29,19 +29,19 @@ namespace melonDS
 class SoftRenderer : public Renderer3D
 {
 public:
-    SoftRenderer(melonDS::GPU& gpu, bool threaded = false) noexcept;
+    SoftRenderer(bool threaded = false) noexcept;
     ~SoftRenderer() override;
-    void Reset() override;
+    void Reset(GPU& gpu) override;
 
-    void SetThreaded(bool threaded) noexcept;
+    void SetThreaded(bool threaded, GPU& gpu) noexcept;
     [[nodiscard]] bool IsThreaded() const noexcept { return Threaded; }
 
-    void VCount144() override;
-    void RenderFrame() override;
-    void RestartFrame() override;
+    void VCount144(GPU& gpu) override;
+    void RenderFrame(GPU& gpu) override;
+    void RestartFrame(GPU& gpu) override;
     u32* GetLine(int line) override;
 
-    void SetupRenderThread();
+    void SetupRenderThread(GPU& gpu);
     void StopRenderThread();
 private:
     // Notes on the interpolator:
@@ -429,16 +429,16 @@ private:
     };
 
     template <typename T>
-    inline T ReadVRAM_Texture(u32 addr) const
+    inline T ReadVRAM_Texture(u32 addr, const GPU& gpu) const
     {
-        return *(T*)&GPU.VRAMFlat_Texture[addr & 0x7FFFF];
+        return *(T*)&gpu.VRAMFlat_Texture[addr & 0x7FFFF];
     }
     template <typename T>
-    inline T ReadVRAM_TexPal(u32 addr) const
+    inline T ReadVRAM_TexPal(u32 addr, const GPU& gpu) const
     {
-        return *(T*)&GPU.VRAMFlat_TexPal[addr & 0x1FFFF];
+        return *(T*)&gpu.VRAMFlat_TexPal[addr & 0x1FFFF];
     }
-    u32 AlphaBlend(u32 srccolor, u32 dstcolor, u32 alpha) const noexcept;
+    u32 AlphaBlend(const GPU3D& gpu3d, u32 srccolor, u32 dstcolor, u32 alpha) const noexcept;
 
     struct RendererPolygon
     {
@@ -452,23 +452,22 @@ private:
 
     };
 
-    melonDS::GPU& GPU;
     RendererPolygon PolygonList[2048];
-    void TextureLookup(u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* color, u8* alpha) const;
-    u32 RenderPixel(const Polygon* polygon, u8 vr, u8 vg, u8 vb, s16 s, s16 t) const;
-    void PlotTranslucentPixel(u32 pixeladdr, u32 color, u32 z, u32 polyattr, u32 shadow);
+    void TextureLookup(const GPU& gpu, u32 texparam, u32 texpal, s16 s, s16 t, u16* color, u8* alpha) const;
+    u32 RenderPixel(const GPU& gpu, const Polygon* polygon, u8 vr, u8 vg, u8 vb, s16 s, s16 t) const;
+    void PlotTranslucentPixel(const GPU3D& gpu3d, u32 pixeladdr, u32 color, u32 z, u32 polyattr, u32 shadow);
     void SetupPolygonLeftEdge(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y) const;
     void SetupPolygonRightEdge(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y) const;
     void SetupPolygon(RendererPolygon* rp, Polygon* polygon) const;
-    void RenderShadowMaskScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y);
-    void RenderPolygonScanline(RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y);
-    void RenderScanline(s32 y, int npolys);
-    u32 CalculateFogDensity(u32 pixeladdr) const;
-    void ScanlineFinalPass(s32 y);
-    void ClearBuffers();
-    void RenderPolygons(bool threaded, Polygon** polygons, int npolys);
+    void RenderShadowMaskScanline(const GPU3D& gpu3d, RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y);
+    void RenderPolygonScanline(const GPU& gpu, RendererPolygon* rp, s32 y);
+    void RenderScanline(const GPU& gpu, s32 y, int npolys);
+    u32 CalculateFogDensity(const GPU3D& gpu3d, u32 pixeladdr) const;
+    void ScanlineFinalPass(const GPU3D& gpu3d, s32 y);
+    void ClearBuffers(const GPU& gpu);
+    void RenderPolygons(const GPU& gpu, bool threaded, Polygon** polygons, int npolys);
 
-    void RenderThreadFunc();
+    void RenderThreadFunc(GPU& gpu);
 
     // buffer dimensions are 258x194 to add a offscreen 1px border
     // which simplifies edge marking tests
diff --git a/src/NDS.cpp b/src/NDS.cpp
index 5d2a1ce2..4fa5eefd 100644
--- a/src/NDS.cpp
+++ b/src/NDS.cpp
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ NDS::NDS(NDSArgs&& args, int type) noexcept :
     ARM9BIOS(args.ARM9BIOS),
     JIT(*this, args.JIT),
     SPU(*this, args.BitDepth, args.Interpolation),
-    GPU(*this),
+    GPU(*this, std::move(args.Renderer3D)),
     SPI(*this, std::move(args.Firmware)),
     RTC(*this),
     Wifi(*this),
@@ -1322,7 +1322,7 @@ void NDS::SetIRQ(u32 cpu, u32 irq)
         {
             CPUStop &= ~CPUStop_Sleep;
             CPUStop |= CPUStop_Wakeup;
-            GPU.GPU3D.RestartFrame();
+            GPU.GPU3D.RestartFrame(GPU);
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/NDS.h b/src/NDS.h
index e178c4a2..d485bd3c 100644
--- a/src/NDS.h
+++ b/src/NDS.h
@@ -328,6 +328,14 @@ public:
     Firmware& GetFirmware() { return SPI.GetFirmwareMem()->GetFirmware(); }
     void SetFirmware(Firmware&& firmware) { SPI.GetFirmwareMem()->SetFirmware(std::move(firmware)); }
 
+    const Renderer3D& GetRenderer3D() const noexcept { return GPU.GetRenderer3D(); }
+    Renderer3D& GetRenderer3D() noexcept { return GPU.GetRenderer3D(); }
+    void SetRenderer3D(std::unique_ptr<Renderer3D>&& renderer) noexcept
+    {
+        if (renderer != nullptr)
+            GPU.SetRenderer3D(std::move(renderer));
+    }
+
     virtual bool NeedsDirectBoot() const;
     void SetupDirectBoot(const std::string& romname);
     virtual void SetupDirectBoot();
diff --git a/src/frontend/qt_sdl/main.cpp b/src/frontend/qt_sdl/main.cpp
index 45dc4e06..3eb5db09 100644
--- a/src/frontend/qt_sdl/main.cpp
+++ b/src/frontend/qt_sdl/main.cpp
@@ -544,11 +544,11 @@ void EmuThread::run()
 
     if (videoRenderer == 0)
     { // If we're using the software renderer...
-        NDS->GPU.SetRenderer3D(std::make_unique<SoftRenderer>(NDS->GPU, Config::Threaded3D != 0));
+        NDS->GPU.SetRenderer3D(std::make_unique<SoftRenderer>(Config::Threaded3D != 0));
     }
     else
     {
-        auto glrenderer =  melonDS::GLRenderer::New(NDS->GPU);
+        auto glrenderer =  melonDS::GLRenderer::New();
         glrenderer->SetRenderSettings(Config::GL_BetterPolygons, Config::GL_ScaleFactor);
         NDS->GPU.SetRenderer3D(std::move(glrenderer));
     }
@@ -677,11 +677,11 @@ void EmuThread::run()
 
                 if (videoRenderer == 0)
                 { // If we're using the software renderer...
-                    NDS->GPU.SetRenderer3D(std::make_unique<SoftRenderer>(NDS->GPU, Config::Threaded3D != 0));
+                    NDS->GPU.SetRenderer3D(std::make_unique<SoftRenderer>(Config::Threaded3D != 0));
                 }
                 else
                 {
-                    auto glrenderer =  melonDS::GLRenderer::New(NDS->GPU);
+                    auto glrenderer =  melonDS::GLRenderer::New();
                     glrenderer->SetRenderSettings(Config::GL_BetterPolygons, Config::GL_ScaleFactor);
                     NDS->GPU.SetRenderer3D(std::move(glrenderer));
                 }