diff --git a/higan/emulator/emulator.hpp b/higan/emulator/emulator.hpp
index bf97581f..b0b13495 100644
--- a/higan/emulator/emulator.hpp
+++ b/higan/emulator/emulator.hpp
@@ -11,42 +11,17 @@ using namespace nall;
 
 namespace Emulator {
   static const string Name = "higan";
-  static const string Version = "099.13";
+  static const string Version = "099.14";
   static const string Author = "byuu";
   static const string License = "GPLv3";
   static const string Website = "http://byuu.org/";
 
   //incremented only when serialization format changes
-  static const string SerializerVersion = "099.07";
+  static const string SerializerVersion = "099.14";
 }
 
 #include "interface.hpp"
 
-//debugging function hook:
-//no overhead (and no debugger invocation) if not compiled with -DDEBUGGER
-//wraps testing of function to allow invocation without a defined callback
-template<typename T> struct hook;
-template<typename R, typename... P> struct hook<auto (P...) -> R> {
-  function<auto (P...) -> R> callback;
-
-  auto operator()(P... p) const -> R {
-    #if defined(DEBUGGER)
-    if(callback) return callback(forward<P>(p)...);
-    #endif
-    return R();
-  }
-
-  hook() {}
-  hook(const hook& hook) { callback = hook.callback; }
-  hook(void* function) { callback = function; }
-  hook(auto (*function)(P...) -> R) { callback = function; }
-  template<typename C> hook(auto (C::*function)(P...) -> R, C* object) { callback = {function, object}; }
-  template<typename C> hook(auto (C::*function)(P...) const -> R, C* object) { callback = {function, object}; }
-  template<typename L> hook(const L& function) { callback = function; }
-
-  auto operator=(const hook& source) -> hook& { callback = source.callback; return *this; }
-};
-
 #if defined(DEBUGGER)
   #define privileged public
 #else
diff --git a/higan/emulator/interface.hpp b/higan/emulator/interface.hpp
index 4d00bc3b..b5dc4616 100644
--- a/higan/emulator/interface.hpp
+++ b/higan/emulator/interface.hpp
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ struct Interface {
     virtual auto audioSample(const double*, uint) -> void {}
     virtual auto inputPoll(uint, uint, uint) -> int16 { return 0; }
     virtual auto inputRumble(uint, uint, uint, bool) -> void {}
-    virtual auto dipSettings(const Markup::Node&) -> uint { return 0; }
+    virtual auto dipSettings(Markup::Node) -> uint { return 0; }
     virtual auto notify(string text) -> void { print(text, "\n"); }
   };
   Bind* bind = nullptr;
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ struct Interface {
   auto audioSample(const double* samples, uint channels) -> void { return bind->audioSample(samples, channels); }
   auto inputPoll(uint port, uint device, uint input) -> int16 { return bind->inputPoll(port, device, input); }
   auto inputRumble(uint port, uint device, uint input, bool enable) -> void { return bind->inputRumble(port, device, input, enable); }
-  auto dipSettings(const Markup::Node& node) -> uint { return bind->dipSettings(node); }
+  auto dipSettings(Markup::Node node) -> uint { return bind->dipSettings(node); }
   template<typename... P> auto notify(P&&... p) -> void { return bind->notify({forward<P>(p)...}); }
 
   //information
diff --git a/higan/fc/interface/interface.cpp b/higan/fc/interface/interface.cpp
index c9c4dff2..4d634f37 100644
--- a/higan/fc/interface/interface.cpp
+++ b/higan/fc/interface/interface.cpp
@@ -169,8 +169,8 @@ auto Interface::cheatSet(const lstring& list) -> void {
     lstring codes = codeset.split("+");
     for(auto& code : codes) {
       lstring part = code.split("/");
-      if(part.size() == 2) cheat.append(hex(part[0]), hex(part[1]));
-      if(part.size() == 3) cheat.append(hex(part[0]), hex(part[1]), hex(part[2]));
+      if(part.size() == 2) cheat.append(part[0].hex(), part[1].hex());
+      if(part.size() == 3) cheat.append(part[0].hex(), part[1].hex(), part[2].hex());
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/higan/gb/interface/interface.cpp b/higan/gb/interface/interface.cpp
index 3f2f0a92..3505c226 100644
--- a/higan/gb/interface/interface.cpp
+++ b/higan/gb/interface/interface.cpp
@@ -168,8 +168,8 @@ auto Interface::cheatSet(const lstring& list) -> void {
     lstring codes = codeset.split("+");
     for(auto& code : codes) {
       lstring part = code.split("/");
-      if(part.size() == 2) cheat.append(hex(part[0]), hex(part[1]));
-      if(part.size() == 3) cheat.append(hex(part[0]), hex(part[1]), hex(part[2]));
+      if(part.size() == 2) cheat.append(part[0].hex(), part[1].hex());
+      if(part.size() == 3) cheat.append(part[0].hex(), part[1].hex(), part[2].hex());
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/higan/processor/r65816/disassembler.cpp b/higan/processor/r65816/disassembler.cpp
index f118b2a2..991e8a1b 100644
--- a/higan/processor/r65816/disassembler.cpp
+++ b/higan/processor/r65816/disassembler.cpp
@@ -402,7 +402,7 @@ auto R65816::disassemble(uint24 addr, bool e, bool m, bool x) -> string {
   #undef a8
   #undef x8
 
-  s.append(t, " A:{0} X:{1} Y:{2} S:{3} D:{4} B:{5} ", format{
+  s.append(t, " A:{0} X:{1} Y:{2} S:{3} D:{4} B:{5} ", string_format{
     hex(r.a.w, 4), hex(r.x.w, 4), hex(r.y.w, 4),
     hex(r.s.w, 4), hex(r.d.w, 4), hex(r.db,  2)
   });
diff --git a/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-misc.cpp b/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-misc.cpp
index 9237fbf5..58b383f4 100644
--- a/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-misc.cpp
+++ b/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-misc.cpp
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 auto R65816::op_nop() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_wdm() {
@@ -7,11 +7,9 @@ L readPC();
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_xba() {
-  io();
-L io();
-  r.a.l ^= r.a.h;
-  r.a.h ^= r.a.l;
-  r.a.l ^= r.a.h;
+  idle();
+L idle();
+  r.a.w = r.a.w >> 8 | r.a.w << 8;
   r.p.n = (r.a.l & 0x80);
   r.p.z = (r.a.l == 0);
 }
@@ -22,10 +20,10 @@ auto R65816::op_move_b(int adjust) {
   r.db = dp;
   rd.l = readLong(sp << 16 | r.x.w);
   writeLong(dp << 16 | r.y.w, rd.l);
-  io();
+  idle();
   r.x.l += adjust;
   r.y.l += adjust;
-L io();
+L idle();
   if(r.a.w--) r.pc.w -= 3;
 }
 
@@ -35,10 +33,10 @@ auto R65816::op_move_w(int adjust) {
   r.db = dp;
   rd.l = readLong(sp << 16 | r.x.w);
   writeLong(dp << 16 | r.y.w, rd.l);
-  io();
+  idle();
   r.x.w += adjust;
   r.y.w += adjust;
-L io();
+L idle();
   if(r.a.w--) r.pc.w -= 3;
 }
 
@@ -57,20 +55,20 @@ L r.pc.h = readLong(vector + 1);
 
 auto R65816::op_stp() {
   while(r.wai = true) {
-L   io();
+L   idle();
   }
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_wai() {
   r.wai = true;
   while(r.wai) {
-L   io();
+L   idle();
   }
-  io();
+  idle();
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_xce() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   bool carry = r.p.c;
   r.p.c = r.e;
   r.e = carry;
@@ -83,24 +81,19 @@ L ioIRQ();
   }
 }
 
-//auto R65816::op_flag(bool& flag, bool value) {
-//L ioIRQ();
-//  flag = value;
-//}
-
 auto R65816::op_set_flag(uint bit) {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   r.p |= 1 << bit;
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_clear_flag(uint bit) {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   r.p &= ~(1 << bit);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_pflag(bool mode) {
   rd.l = readPC();
-L io();
+L idle();
   r.p = (mode ? r.p | rd.l : r.p & ~rd.l);
 E r.p.m = 1, r.p.x = 1;
   if(r.p.x) {
@@ -110,89 +103,89 @@ E r.p.m = 1, r.p.x = 1;
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_transfer_b(Reg16& from, Reg16& to) {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   to.l = from.l;
   r.p.n = (to.l & 0x80);
   r.p.z = (to.l == 0);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_transfer_w(Reg16& from, Reg16& to) {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   to.w = from.w;
   r.p.n = (to.w & 0x8000);
   r.p.z = (to.w == 0);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_tcs() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   r.s.w = r.a.w;
 E r.s.h = 0x01;
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_tsx_b() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   r.x.l = r.s.l;
   r.p.n = (r.x.l & 0x80);
   r.p.z = (r.x.l == 0);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_tsx_w() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   r.x.w = r.s.w;
   r.p.n = (r.x.w & 0x8000);
   r.p.z = (r.x.w == 0);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_txs() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
 E r.s.l = r.x.l;
 N r.s.w = r.x.w;
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_push_b(Reg16& reg) {
-  io();
+  idle();
 L writeSP(reg.l);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_push_w(Reg16& reg) {
-  io();
+  idle();
   writeSP(reg.h);
 L writeSP(reg.l);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_phd() {
-  io();
+  idle();
   writeSPn(r.d.h);
 L writeSPn(r.d.l);
 E r.s.h = 0x01;
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_phb() {
-  io();
+  idle();
 L writeSP(r.db);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_phk() {
-  io();
+  idle();
 L writeSP(r.pc.b);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_php() {
-  io();
+  idle();
 L writeSP(r.p);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_pull_b(Reg16& reg) {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
 L reg.l = readSP();
   r.p.n = (reg.l & 0x80);
   r.p.z = (reg.l == 0);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_pull_w(Reg16& reg) {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   reg.l = readSP();
 L reg.h = readSP();
   r.p.n = (reg.w & 0x8000);
@@ -200,8 +193,8 @@ L reg.h = readSP();
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_pld() {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   r.d.l = readSPn();
 L r.d.h = readSPn();
   r.p.n = (r.d.w & 0x8000);
@@ -210,16 +203,16 @@ E r.s.h = 0x01;
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_plb() {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
 L r.db = readSP();
   r.p.n = (r.db & 0x80);
   r.p.z = (r.db == 0);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_plp() {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
 L r.p = readSP();
 E r.p.m = 1, r.p.x = 1;
   if(r.p.x) {
@@ -238,7 +231,7 @@ E r.s.h = 0x01;
 
 auto R65816::op_pei() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDPn(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDPn(dp + 1);
   writeSPn(aa.h);
@@ -249,7 +242,7 @@ E r.s.h = 0x01;
 auto R65816::op_per() {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd.w = r.pc.d + (int16)aa.w;
   writeSPn(rd.h);
 L writeSPn(rd.l);
diff --git a/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-pc.cpp b/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-pc.cpp
index a1e84660..e1cfb325 100644
--- a/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-pc.cpp
+++ b/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-pc.cpp
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@ L   rd.l = readPC();
   } else {
     rd.l = readPC();
     aa.w = r.pc.d + (int8)rd.l;
-    io6(aa.w);
-L   io();
+    idle6(aa.w);
+L   idle();
     r.pc.w = aa.w;
   }
 }
@@ -13,15 +13,15 @@ L   io();
 auto R65816::op_bra() {
   rd.l = readPC();
   aa.w = r.pc.d + (int8)rd.l;
-  io6(aa.w);
-L io();
+  idle6(aa.w);
+L idle();
   r.pc.w = aa.w;
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_brl() {
   rd.l = readPC();
   rd.h = readPC();
-L io();
+L idle();
   r.pc.w = r.pc.d + (int16)rd.w;
 }
 
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ L rd.h = readAddr(aa.w + 1);
 auto R65816::op_jmp_iaddrx() {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd.l = readPB(aa.w + r.x.w + 0);
 L rd.h = readPB(aa.w + r.x.w + 1);
   r.pc.w = rd.w;
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ L rd.b = readAddr(aa.w + 2);
 auto R65816::op_jsr_addr() {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   r.pc.w--;
   writeSP(r.pc.h);
 L writeSP(r.pc.l);
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ auto R65816::op_jsr_long() {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
   writeSPn(r.pc.b);
-  io();
+  idle();
   aa.b = readPC();
   r.pc.w--;
   writeSPn(r.pc.h);
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ auto R65816::op_jsr_iaddrx() {
   writeSPn(r.pc.h);
   writeSPn(r.pc.l);
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd.l = readPB(aa.w + r.x.w + 0);
 L rd.h = readPB(aa.w + r.x.w + 1);
   r.pc.w = rd.w;
@@ -100,8 +100,8 @@ E r.s.h = 0x01;
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_rti() {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   r.p = readSP();
 E r.p.m = 1, r.p.x = 1;
   if(r.p.x) {
@@ -118,17 +118,17 @@ E r.p.m = 1, r.p.x = 1;
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_rts() {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   rd.l = readSP();
   rd.h = readSP();
-L io();
+L idle();
   r.pc.w = ++rd.w;
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_rtl() {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   rd.l = readSPn();
   rd.h = readSPn();
 L rd.b = readSPn();
diff --git a/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-read.cpp b/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-read.cpp
index ea03f467..56447170 100644
--- a/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-read.cpp
+++ b/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-read.cpp
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ L rd.h = readDB(aa.w + 1);
 auto R65816::op_read_addrx_b(fp op) {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io4(aa.w, aa.w + r.x.w);
+  idle4(aa.w, aa.w + r.x.w);
 L rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.x.w);
   call(op);
 }
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ L rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.x.w);
 auto R65816::op_read_addrx_w(fp op) {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io4(aa.w, aa.w + r.x.w);
+  idle4(aa.w, aa.w + r.x.w);
   rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.x.w + 0);
 L rd.h = readDB(aa.w + r.x.w + 1);
   call(op);
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ L rd.h = readDB(aa.w + r.x.w + 1);
 auto R65816::op_read_addry_b(fp op) {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io4(aa.w, aa.w + r.y.w);
+  idle4(aa.w, aa.w + r.y.w);
 L rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.y.w);
   call(op);
 }
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ L rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.y.w);
 auto R65816::op_read_addry_w(fp op) {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io4(aa.w, aa.w + r.y.w);
+  idle4(aa.w, aa.w + r.y.w);
   rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.y.w + 0);
 L rd.h = readDB(aa.w + r.y.w + 1);
   call(op);
@@ -105,14 +105,14 @@ L rd.h = readLong(aa.d + r.x.w + 1);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_dp_b(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
 L rd.l = readDP(dp);
   call(op);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_read_dp_w(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   rd.l = readDP(dp + 0);
 L rd.h = readDP(dp + 1);
   call(op);
@@ -120,16 +120,16 @@ L rd.h = readDP(dp + 1);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_dpr_b(fp op, Reg16& reg) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
-  io();
+  idle2();
+  idle();
 L rd.l = readDP(dp + reg.w);
   call(op);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_read_dpr_w(fp op, Reg16& reg) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
-  io();
+  idle2();
+  idle();
   rd.l = readDP(dp + reg.w + 0);
 L rd.h = readDP(dp + reg.w + 1);
   call(op);
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ L rd.h = readDP(dp + reg.w + 1);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_idp_b(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + 1);
 L rd.l = readDB(aa.w);
@@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ L rd.l = readDB(aa.w);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_idp_w(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + 1);
   rd.l = readDB(aa.w + 0);
@@ -156,8 +156,8 @@ L rd.h = readDB(aa.w + 1);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_idpx_b(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
-  io();
+  idle2();
+  idle();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + r.x.w + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + r.x.w + 1);
 L rd.l = readDB(aa.w);
@@ -166,8 +166,8 @@ L rd.l = readDB(aa.w);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_idpx_w(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
-  io();
+  idle2();
+  idle();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + r.x.w + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + r.x.w + 1);
   rd.l = readDB(aa.w + 0);
@@ -177,20 +177,20 @@ L rd.h = readDB(aa.w + 1);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_idpy_b(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + 1);
-  io4(aa.w, aa.w + r.y.w);
+  idle4(aa.w, aa.w + r.y.w);
 L rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.y.w);
   call(op);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_read_idpy_w(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + 1);
-  io4(aa.w, aa.w + r.y.w);
+  idle4(aa.w, aa.w + r.y.w);
   rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.y.w + 0);
 L rd.h = readDB(aa.w + r.y.w + 1);
   call(op);
@@ -198,7 +198,7 @@ L rd.h = readDB(aa.w + r.y.w + 1);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_ildp_b(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDPn(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDPn(dp + 1);
   aa.b = readDPn(dp + 2);
@@ -208,7 +208,7 @@ L rd.l = readLong(aa.d);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_ildp_w(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDPn(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDPn(dp + 1);
   aa.b = readDPn(dp + 2);
@@ -219,7 +219,7 @@ L rd.h = readLong(aa.d + 1);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_ildpy_b(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDPn(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDPn(dp + 1);
   aa.b = readDPn(dp + 2);
@@ -229,7 +229,7 @@ L rd.l = readLong(aa.d + r.y.w);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_ildpy_w(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDPn(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDPn(dp + 1);
   aa.b = readDPn(dp + 2);
@@ -240,14 +240,14 @@ L rd.h = readLong(aa.d + r.y.w + 1);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_sr_b(fp op) {
   sp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
 L rd.l = readSP(sp);
   call(op);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_read_sr_w(fp op) {
   sp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd.l = readSP(sp + 0);
 L rd.h = readSP(sp + 1);
   call(op);
@@ -255,20 +255,20 @@ L rd.h = readSP(sp + 1);
 
 auto R65816::op_read_isry_b(fp op) {
   sp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   aa.l = readSP(sp + 0);
   aa.h = readSP(sp + 1);
-  io();
+  idle();
 L rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.y.w);
   call(op);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_read_isry_w(fp op) {
   sp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   aa.l = readSP(sp + 0);
   aa.h = readSP(sp + 1);
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.y.w + 0);
 L rd.h = readDB(aa.w + r.y.w + 1);
   call(op);
diff --git a/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-rmw.cpp b/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-rmw.cpp
index 7f00730c..da9d11d1 100644
--- a/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-rmw.cpp
+++ b/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-rmw.cpp
@@ -1,19 +1,19 @@
 auto R65816::op_adjust_imm_b(Reg16& reg, int adjust) {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   reg.l += adjust;
   r.p.n = (reg.l & 0x80);
   r.p.z = (reg.l == 0);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_adjust_imm_w(Reg16& reg, int adjust) {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   reg.w += adjust;
   r.p.n = (reg.w & 0x8000);
   r.p.z = (reg.w == 0);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_asl_imm_b() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   r.p.c = (r.a.l & 0x80);
   r.a.l <<= 1;
   r.p.n = (r.a.l & 0x80);
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ L ioIRQ();
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_asl_imm_w() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   r.p.c = (r.a.w & 0x8000);
   r.a.w <<= 1;
   r.p.n = (r.a.w & 0x8000);
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ L ioIRQ();
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_lsr_imm_b() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   r.p.c = (r.a.l & 0x01);
   r.a.l >>= 1;
   r.p.n = (r.a.l & 0x80);
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ L ioIRQ();
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_lsr_imm_w() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   r.p.c = (r.a.w & 0x0001);
   r.a.w >>= 1;
   r.p.n = (r.a.w & 0x8000);
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ L ioIRQ();
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_rol_imm_b() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   bool carry = r.p.c;
   r.p.c = (r.a.l & 0x80);
   r.a.l = (r.a.l << 1) | carry;
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ L ioIRQ();
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_rol_imm_w() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   bool carry = r.p.c;
   r.p.c = (r.a.w & 0x8000);
   r.a.w = (r.a.w << 1) | carry;
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ L ioIRQ();
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_ror_imm_b() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   bool carry = r.p.c;
   r.p.c = (r.a.l & 0x01);
   r.a.l = (carry << 7) | (r.a.l >> 1);
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ L ioIRQ();
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_ror_imm_w() {
-L ioIRQ();
+L idleIRQ();
   bool carry = r.p.c;
   r.p.c = (r.a.w & 0x0001);
   r.a.w = (carry << 15) | (r.a.w >> 1);
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ auto R65816::op_adjust_addr_b(fp op) {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
   rd.l = readDB(aa.w);
-  io();
+  idle();
   call(op);
 L writeDB(aa.w, rd.l);
 }
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ auto R65816::op_adjust_addr_w(fp op) {
   aa.h = readPC();
   rd.l = readDB(aa.w + 0);
   rd.h = readDB(aa.w + 1);
-  io();
+  idle();
   call(op);
   writeDB(aa.w + 1, rd.h);
 L writeDB(aa.w + 0, rd.l);
@@ -103,9 +103,9 @@ L writeDB(aa.w + 0, rd.l);
 auto R65816::op_adjust_addrx_b(fp op) {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.x.w);
-  io();
+  idle();
   call(op);
 L writeDB(aa.w + r.x.w, rd.l);
 }
@@ -113,10 +113,10 @@ L writeDB(aa.w + r.x.w, rd.l);
 auto R65816::op_adjust_addrx_w(fp op) {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd.l = readDB(aa.w + r.x.w + 0);
   rd.h = readDB(aa.w + r.x.w + 1);
-  io();
+  idle();
   call(op);
   writeDB(aa.w + r.x.w + 1, rd.h);
 L writeDB(aa.w + r.x.w + 0, rd.l);
@@ -124,19 +124,19 @@ L writeDB(aa.w + r.x.w + 0, rd.l);
 
 auto R65816::op_adjust_dp_b(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   rd.l = readDP(dp);
-  io();
+  idle();
   call(op);
 L writeDP(dp, rd.l);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_adjust_dp_w(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   rd.l = readDP(dp + 0);
   rd.h = readDP(dp + 1);
-  io();
+  idle();
   call(op);
   writeDP(dp + 1, rd.h);
 L writeDP(dp + 0, rd.l);
@@ -144,21 +144,21 @@ L writeDP(dp + 0, rd.l);
 
 auto R65816::op_adjust_dpx_b(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
-  io();
+  idle2();
+  idle();
   rd.l = readDP(dp + r.x.w);
-  io();
+  idle();
   call(op);
 L writeDP(dp + r.x.w, rd.l);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_adjust_dpx_w(fp op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
-  io();
+  idle2();
+  idle();
   rd.l = readDP(dp + r.x.w + 0);
   rd.h = readDP(dp + r.x.w + 1);
-  io();
+  idle();
   call(op);
   writeDP(dp + r.x.w + 1, rd.h);
 L writeDP(dp + r.x.w + 0, rd.l);
diff --git a/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-write.cpp b/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-write.cpp
index ca056577..0a63af69 100644
--- a/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-write.cpp
+++ b/higan/processor/r65816/instructions-write.cpp
@@ -14,14 +14,14 @@ L writeDB(aa.w + 1, reg >> 8);
 auto R65816::op_write_addrr_b(Reg16& reg, Reg16& idx) {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
 L writeDB(aa.w + idx, reg);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_write_addrr_w(Reg16& reg, Reg16& idx) {
   aa.l = readPC();
   aa.h = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   writeDB(aa.w + idx + 0, reg >> 0);
 L writeDB(aa.w + idx + 1, reg >> 8);
 }
@@ -43,35 +43,35 @@ L writeLong(aa.d + idx + 1, r.a.h);
 
 auto R65816::op_write_dp_b(Reg16& reg) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
 L writeDP(dp, reg);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_write_dp_w(Reg16& reg) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   writeDP(dp + 0, reg >> 0);
 L writeDP(dp + 1, reg >> 8);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_write_dpr_b(Reg16& reg, Reg16& idx) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
-  io();
+  idle2();
+  idle();
 L writeDP(dp + idx, reg);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_write_dpr_w(Reg16& reg, Reg16& idx) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
-  io();
+  idle2();
+  idle();
   writeDP(dp + idx + 0, reg >> 0);
 L writeDP(dp + idx + 1, reg >> 8);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_idp_b() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + 1);
 L writeDB(aa.w, r.a.l);
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ L writeDB(aa.w, r.a.l);
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_idp_w() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + 1);
   writeDB(aa.w + 0, r.a.l);
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ L writeDB(aa.w + 1, r.a.h);
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_ildp_b() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDPn(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDPn(dp + 1);
   aa.b = readDPn(dp + 2);
@@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ L writeLong(aa.d, r.a.l);
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_ildp_w() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDPn(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDPn(dp + 1);
   aa.b = readDPn(dp + 2);
@@ -107,8 +107,8 @@ L writeLong(aa.d + 1, r.a.h);
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_idpx_b() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
-  io();
+  idle2();
+  idle();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + r.x.w + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + r.x.w + 1);
 L writeDB(aa.w, r.a.l);
@@ -116,8 +116,8 @@ L writeDB(aa.w, r.a.l);
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_idpx_w() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
-  io();
+  idle2();
+  idle();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + r.x.w + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + r.x.w + 1);
   writeDB(aa.w + 0, r.a.l);
@@ -126,26 +126,26 @@ L writeDB(aa.w + 1, r.a.h);
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_idpy_b() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + 1);
-  io();
+  idle();
 L writeDB(aa.w + r.y.w, r.a.l);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_idpy_w() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDP(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDP(dp + 1);
-  io();
+  idle();
   writeDB(aa.w + r.y.w + 0, r.a.l);
 L writeDB(aa.w + r.y.w + 1, r.a.h);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_ildpy_b() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDPn(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDPn(dp + 1);
   aa.b = readDPn(dp + 2);
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ L writeLong(aa.d + r.y.w, r.a.l);
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_ildpy_w() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io2();
+  idle2();
   aa.l = readDPn(dp + 0);
   aa.h = readDPn(dp + 1);
   aa.b = readDPn(dp + 2);
@@ -164,32 +164,32 @@ L writeLong(aa.d + r.y.w + 1, r.a.h);
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_sr_b() {
   sp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
 L writeSP(sp, r.a.l);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_sr_w() {
   sp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   writeSP(sp + 0, r.a.l);
 L writeSP(sp + 1, r.a.h);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_isry_b() {
   sp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   aa.l = readSP(sp + 0);
   aa.h = readSP(sp + 1);
-  io();
+  idle();
 L writeDB(aa.w + r.y.w, r.a.l);
 }
 
 auto R65816::op_sta_isry_w() {
   sp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   aa.l = readSP(sp + 0);
   aa.h = readSP(sp + 1);
-  io();
+  idle();
   writeDB(aa.w + r.y.w + 0, r.a.l);
 L writeDB(aa.w + r.y.w + 1, r.a.h);
 }
diff --git a/higan/processor/r65816/r65816.cpp b/higan/processor/r65816/r65816.cpp
index bd3a95d9..9df96622 100644
--- a/higan/processor/r65816/r65816.cpp
+++ b/higan/processor/r65816/r65816.cpp
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ namespace Processor {
 #include "instructions-misc.cpp"
 #include "switch.cpp"
 
-//immediate, 2-cycle opcodes with I/O cycle will become bus read
+//immediate, 2-cycle opcodes with idle cycle will become bus read
 //when an IRQ is to be triggered immediately after opcode completion.
 //this affects the following opcodes:
 //  clc, cld, cli, clv, sec, sed, sei,
@@ -27,36 +27,36 @@ namespace Processor {
 //  tcd, tcs, tdc, tsc, tsx, txs,
 //  inc, inx, iny, dec, dex, dey,
 //  asl, lsr, rol, ror, nop, xce.
-auto R65816::ioIRQ() -> void {
+auto R65816::idleIRQ() -> void {
   if(interruptPending()) {
     //modify I/O cycle to bus read cycle, do not increment PC
     read(r.pc.d);
   } else {
-    io();
+    idle();
   }
 }
 
-auto R65816::io2() -> void {
+auto R65816::idle2() -> void {
   if(r.d.l != 0x00) {
-    io();
+    idle();
   }
 }
 
-auto R65816::io4(uint16 x, uint16 y) -> void {
+auto R65816::idle4(uint16 x, uint16 y) -> void {
   if(!r.p.x || (x & 0xff00) != (y & 0xff00)) {
-    io();
+    idle();
   }
 }
 
-auto R65816::io6(uint16 addr) -> void {
+auto R65816::idle6(uint16 addr) -> void {
   if(r.e && (r.pc.w & 0xff00) != (addr & 0xff00)) {
-    io();
+    idle();
   }
 }
 
 auto R65816::interrupt() -> void {
   read(r.pc.d);
-  io();
+  idle();
 N writeSP(r.pc.b);
   writeSP(r.pc.h);
   writeSP(r.pc.l);
diff --git a/higan/processor/r65816/r65816.hpp b/higan/processor/r65816/r65816.hpp
index f9f8cb53..1aedcacf 100644
--- a/higan/processor/r65816/r65816.hpp
+++ b/higan/processor/r65816/r65816.hpp
@@ -13,20 +13,20 @@ struct R65816 {
 
   using fp = auto (R65816::*)() -> void;
 
-  virtual auto io() -> void = 0;
+  virtual auto idle() -> void = 0;
   virtual auto read(uint24 addr) -> uint8 = 0;
   virtual auto write(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void = 0;
   virtual auto lastCycle() -> void = 0;
   virtual auto interruptPending() const -> bool = 0;
-  virtual auto interrupt() -> void;
 
   virtual auto readDisassembler(uint24 addr) -> uint8 { return 0; }
 
   //r65816.cpp
-  alwaysinline auto ioIRQ() -> void;
-  alwaysinline auto io2() -> void;
-  alwaysinline auto io4(uint16 x, uint16 y) -> void;
-  alwaysinline auto io6(uint16 addr) -> void;
+  alwaysinline auto idleIRQ() -> void;
+  alwaysinline auto idle2() -> void;
+  alwaysinline auto idle4(uint16 x, uint16 y) -> void;
+  alwaysinline auto idle6(uint16 addr) -> void;
+  auto interrupt() -> void;
 
   //algorithms.cpp
   auto op_adc_b();
diff --git a/higan/processor/spc700/instructions.cpp b/higan/processor/spc700/instructions.cpp
index a1b41977..f66f5c6f 100644
--- a/higan/processor/spc700/instructions.cpp
+++ b/higan/processor/spc700/instructions.cpp
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 #define call (this->*op)
 
 auto SPC700::op_adjust(fps op, reg r) {
-  io();
+  idle();
   r = call(r);
 }
 
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ auto SPC700::op_adjust_dpw(int n) {
 
 auto SPC700::op_adjust_dpx(fps op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd = readDP(dp + regs.x);
   rd = call(rd);
   writeDP(dp + regs.x, rd);
@@ -41,8 +41,8 @@ auto SPC700::op_adjust_dpx(fps op) {
 auto SPC700::op_branch(bool condition) {
   rd = readPC();
   if(!condition) return;
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   regs.pc += (int8)rd;
 }
 
@@ -50,22 +50,22 @@ auto SPC700::op_branch_bit() {
   dp = readPC();
   sp = readDP(dp);
   rd = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   if((bool)(sp & (1 << (opcode >> 5))) == (bool)(opcode & 0x10)) return;
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   regs.pc += (int8)rd;
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_pull(reg r) {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   r = readSP();
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_push(uint8 r) {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   writeSP(r);
 }
 
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ auto SPC700::op_read_addr(fpb op, reg r) {
 auto SPC700::op_read_addri(fpb op, reg r) {
   dp.l = readPC();
   dp.h = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd = read(dp + r);
   regs.a = call(regs.a, rd);
 }
@@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ auto SPC700::op_read_dp(fpb op, reg r) {
 
 auto SPC700::op_read_dpi(fpb op, reg r, reg i) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd = readDP(dp + i);
   r = call(r, rd);
 }
@@ -105,14 +105,14 @@ auto SPC700::op_read_dpi(fpb op, reg r, reg i) {
 auto SPC700::op_read_dpw(fpw op) {
   dp = readPC();
   rd.l = readDP(dp++);
-  if(op != &SPC700::op_cpw) io();
+  if(op != &SPC700::op_cpw) idle();
   rd.h = readDP(dp++);
   regs.ya = call(regs.ya, rd);
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_read_idpx(fpb op) {
   dp = readPC() + regs.x;
-  io();
+  idle();
   sp.l = readDP(dp++);
   sp.h = readDP(dp++);
   rd = read(sp);
@@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ auto SPC700::op_read_idpx(fpb op) {
 
 auto SPC700::op_read_idpy(fpb op) {
   dp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   sp.l = readDP(dp++);
   sp.h = readDP(dp++);
   rd = read(sp + regs.y);
@@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ auto SPC700::op_read_idpy(fpb op) {
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_read_ix(fpb op) {
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd = readDP(regs.x);
   regs.a = call(regs.a, rd);
 }
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ auto SPC700::op_set_addr_bit() {
   switch(opcode >> 5) {
   case 0:  //orc  addr:bit
   case 1:  //orc !addr:bit
-    io();
+    idle();
     regs.p.c |= (rd & (1 << bit)) ^ (bool)(opcode & 0x20);
     break;
   case 2:  //and  addr:bit
@@ -151,14 +151,14 @@ auto SPC700::op_set_addr_bit() {
     regs.p.c &= (rd & (1 << bit)) ^ (bool)(opcode & 0x20);
     break;
   case 4:  //eor  addr:bit
-    io();
+    idle();
     regs.p.c ^= (bool)(rd & (1 << bit));
     break;
   case 5:  //ldc  addr:bit
     regs.p.c  = (rd & (1 << bit));
     break;
   case 6:  //stc  addr:bit
-    io();
+    idle();
     rd = (rd & ~(1 << bit)) | (regs.p.c << bit);
     write(dp, rd);
     break;
@@ -176,8 +176,8 @@ auto SPC700::op_set_bit() {
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_set_flag(uint bit, bool value) {
-  io();
-  if(bit == regs.p.i.bit) io();
+  idle();
+  if(bit == regs.p.i.bit) idle();
   regs.p = value ? (regs.p | (1 << bit)) : (regs.p & ~(1 << bit));
 }
 
@@ -192,7 +192,7 @@ auto SPC700::op_test_addr(bool set) {
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_transfer(reg from, reg to) {
-  io();
+  idle();
   to = from;
   if(&to == &regs.s) return;
   regs.p.n = (to & 0x80);
@@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ auto SPC700::op_write_addr(reg r) {
 auto SPC700::op_write_addri(reg i) {
   dp.l = readPC();
   dp.h = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   dp += i;
   read(dp);
   write(dp, regs.a);
@@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ auto SPC700::op_write_dp(reg r) {
 
 auto SPC700::op_write_dpi(reg r, reg i) {
   dp = readPC() + i;
-  io();
+  idle();
   readDP(dp);
   writeDP(dp, r);
 }
@@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ auto SPC700::op_write_dp_const(fpb op) {
   dp = readPC();
   wr = readDP(dp);
   wr = call(wr, rd);
-  op != &SPC700::op_cmp ? writeDP(dp, wr) : io();
+  op != &SPC700::op_cmp ? writeDP(dp, wr) : idle();
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_write_dp_dp(fpb op) {
@@ -242,15 +242,15 @@ auto SPC700::op_write_dp_dp(fpb op) {
   dp = readPC();
   if(op != &SPC700::op_st) wr = readDP(dp);
   wr = call(wr, rd);
-  op != &SPC700::op_cmp ? writeDP(dp, wr) : io();
+  op != &SPC700::op_cmp ? writeDP(dp, wr) : idle();
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_write_ix_iy(fpb op) {
-  io();
+  idle();
   rd = readDP(regs.y);
   wr = readDP(regs.x);
   wr = call(wr, rd);
-  op != &SPC700::op_cmp ? writeDP(regs.x, wr) : io();
+  op != &SPC700::op_cmp ? writeDP(regs.x, wr) : idle();
 }
 
 //
@@ -259,10 +259,10 @@ auto SPC700::op_bne_dp() {
   dp = readPC();
   sp = readDP(dp);
   rd = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   if(regs.a == sp) return;
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   regs.pc += (int8)rd;
 }
 
@@ -272,38 +272,38 @@ auto SPC700::op_bne_dpdec() {
   writeDP(dp, --wr);
   rd = readPC();
   if(wr == 0) return;
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   regs.pc += (int8)rd;
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_bne_dpx() {
   dp = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   sp = readDP(dp + regs.x);
   rd = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   if(regs.a == sp) return;
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   regs.pc += (int8)rd;
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_bne_ydec() {
   rd = readPC();
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   if(--regs.y == 0) return;
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   regs.pc += (int8)rd;
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_brk() {
   rd.l = read(0xffde);
   rd.h = read(0xffdf);
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   writeSP(regs.pc.h);
   writeSP(regs.pc.l);
   writeSP(regs.p);
@@ -313,20 +313,20 @@ auto SPC700::op_brk() {
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_clv() {
-  io();
+  idle();
   regs.p.v = 0;
   regs.p.h = 0;
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_cmc() {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   regs.p.c = !regs.p.c;
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_daa() {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   if(regs.p.c || (regs.a) > 0x99) {
     regs.a += 0x60;
     regs.p.c = 1;
@@ -339,8 +339,8 @@ auto SPC700::op_daa() {
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_das() {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   if(!regs.p.c || (regs.a) > 0x99) {
     regs.a -= 0x60;
     regs.p.c = 0;
@@ -353,17 +353,17 @@ auto SPC700::op_das() {
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_div_ya_x() {
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   ya = regs.ya;
   //overflow set if quotient >= 256
   regs.p.v = (regs.y >= regs.x);
@@ -392,7 +392,7 @@ auto SPC700::op_jmp_addr() {
 auto SPC700::op_jmp_iaddrx() {
   dp.l = readPC();
   dp.h = readPC();
-  io();
+  idle();
   dp += regs.x;
   rd.l = read(dp++);
   rd.h = read(dp++);
@@ -401,8 +401,8 @@ auto SPC700::op_jmp_iaddrx() {
 
 auto SPC700::op_jsp_dp() {
   rd = readPC();
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   writeSP(regs.pc.h);
   writeSP(regs.pc.l);
   regs.pc = 0xff00 | rd;
@@ -411,9 +411,9 @@ auto SPC700::op_jsp_dp() {
 auto SPC700::op_jsr_addr() {
   rd.l = readPC();
   rd.h = readPC();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   writeSP(regs.pc.h);
   writeSP(regs.pc.l);
   regs.pc = rd;
@@ -423,31 +423,31 @@ auto SPC700::op_jst() {
   dp = 0xffde - ((opcode >> 4) << 1);
   rd.l = read(dp++);
   rd.h = read(dp++);
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   writeSP(regs.pc.h);
   writeSP(regs.pc.l);
   regs.pc = rd;
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_lda_ixinc() {
-  io();
+  idle();
   regs.a = readDP(regs.x++);
-  io();
+  idle();
   regs.p.n = regs.a & 0x80;
   regs.p.z = regs.a == 0;
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_mul_ya() {
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   ya = regs.y * regs.a;
   regs.a = ya;
   regs.y = ya >> 8;
@@ -457,12 +457,12 @@ auto SPC700::op_mul_ya() {
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_nop() {
-  io();
+  idle();
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_plp() {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   regs.p = readSP();
 }
 
@@ -470,22 +470,22 @@ auto SPC700::op_rti() {
   regs.p = readSP();
   rd.l = readSP();
   rd.h = readSP();
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   regs.pc = rd;
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_rts() {
   rd.l = readSP();
   rd.h = readSP();
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   regs.pc = rd;
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_sta_idpx() {
   sp = readPC() + regs.x;
-  io();
+  idle();
   dp.l = readDP(sp++);
   dp.h = readDP(sp++);
   read(dp);
@@ -496,21 +496,21 @@ auto SPC700::op_sta_idpy() {
   sp = readPC();
   dp.l = readDP(sp++);
   dp.h = readDP(sp++);
-  io();
+  idle();
   dp += regs.y;
   read(dp);
   write(dp, regs.a);
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_sta_ix() {
-  io();
+  idle();
   readDP(regs.x);
   writeDP(regs.x, regs.a);
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_sta_ixinc() {
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   writeDP(regs.x++, regs.a);
 }
 
@@ -523,16 +523,16 @@ auto SPC700::op_stw_dp() {
 
 auto SPC700::op_wait() {
   while(true) {
-    io();
-    io();
+    idle();
+    idle();
   }
 }
 
 auto SPC700::op_xcn() {
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
-  io();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
+  idle();
   regs.a = (regs.a >> 4) | (regs.a << 4);
   regs.p.n = regs.a & 0x80;
   regs.p.z = regs.a == 0;
diff --git a/higan/processor/spc700/spc700.hpp b/higan/processor/spc700/spc700.hpp
index 2a1de917..7e885623 100644
--- a/higan/processor/spc700/spc700.hpp
+++ b/higan/processor/spc700/spc700.hpp
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 namespace Processor {
 
 struct SPC700 {
-  virtual auto io() -> void = 0;
+  virtual auto idle() -> void = 0;
   virtual auto read(uint16 addr) -> uint8 = 0;
   virtual auto write(uint16 addr, uint8 data) -> void = 0;
   virtual auto readDisassembler(uint16 addr) -> uint8 = 0;
diff --git a/higan/processor/v30mz/disassembler.cpp b/higan/processor/v30mz/disassembler.cpp
index dfcfb6fc..ccd87f89 100644
--- a/higan/processor/v30mz/disassembler.cpp
+++ b/higan/processor/v30mz/disassembler.cpp
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+using format = string_format;
+
 //todo: this is horribly broken in many cases; needs a total rewrite
 auto V30MZ::disassemble(uint16 cs, uint16 ip, bool registers, bool bytes) -> string {
   string s;
diff --git a/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/memory.cpp b/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/memory.cpp
index f64c0924..458719eb 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/memory.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/memory.cpp
@@ -108,7 +108,7 @@ auto SA1::vbrRead(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
 //tick() == 2 clock ticks
 //note: bus conflict delays are not emulated at this time
 
-auto SA1::io() -> void {
+auto SA1::idle() -> void {
   tick();
 }
 
diff --git a/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/sa1.cpp b/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/sa1.cpp
index e3a1201f..79b33345 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/sa1.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/sa1.cpp
@@ -30,19 +30,6 @@ auto SA1::main() -> void {
   instruction();
 }
 
-auto SA1::interrupt() -> void {
-  read(r.pc.d);
-  io();
-  if(!r.e) writeSP(r.pc.b);
-  writeSP(r.pc.h);
-  writeSP(r.pc.l);
-  writeSP(r.e ? (r.p & ~0x10) : r.p);
-  r.pc.w = r.vector;
-  r.pc.b = 0x00;
-  r.p.i = 1;
-  r.p.d = 0;
-}
-
 auto SA1::lastCycle() -> void {
   if(mmio.sa1_nmi && !mmio.sa1_nmicl) {
     status.interruptPending = true;
diff --git a/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/sa1.hpp b/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/sa1.hpp
index cc9f6200..f770eb53 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/sa1.hpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/coprocessor/sa1/sa1.hpp
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@ struct SA1 : Processor::R65816, Cothread {
   static auto Enter() -> void;
   auto main() -> void;
   auto tick() -> void;
-  auto interrupt() -> void override;
 
   alwaysinline auto triggerIRQ() -> void;
   alwaysinline auto lastCycle() -> void override;
@@ -47,7 +46,7 @@ struct SA1 : Processor::R65816, Cothread {
   auto busWrite(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void;
   auto vbrRead(uint24 addr, uint8 data = 0) -> uint8;
 
-  alwaysinline auto io() -> void override;
+  alwaysinline auto idle() -> void override;
   alwaysinline auto read(uint24 addr) -> uint8 override;
   alwaysinline auto write(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void override;
 
diff --git a/higan/sfc/cpu/cpu.cpp b/higan/sfc/cpu/cpu.cpp
index 98673934..9c0c4aec 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/cpu/cpu.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/cpu/cpu.cpp
@@ -12,25 +12,13 @@ CPU cpu;
 #include "serialization.cpp"
 
 auto CPU::interruptPending() const -> bool { return status.interruptPending; }
-auto CPU::pio() const -> uint8 { return status.pio; }
-auto CPU::joylatch() const -> bool { return status.joypadStrobeLatch; }
+auto CPU::pio() const -> uint8 { return io.pio; }
+auto CPU::joylatch() const -> bool { return io.joypadStrobeLatch; }
 
 CPU::CPU() {
   PPUcounter::scanline = {&CPU::scanline, this};
 }
 
-auto CPU::step(uint clocks) -> void {
-  smp.clock -= clocks * (uint64)smp.frequency;
-  ppu.clock -= clocks;
-  for(auto coprocessor : coprocessors) {
-    coprocessor->clock -= clocks * (uint64)coprocessor->frequency;
-  }
-  for(auto peripheral : peripherals) {
-    peripheral->clock -= clocks * (uint64)peripheral->frequency;
-  }
-  synchronizePeripherals();
-}
-
 auto CPU::synchronizeSMP() -> void {
   if(smp.clock < 0) co_switch(smp.thread);
 }
@@ -68,12 +56,12 @@ auto CPU::main() -> void {
       interrupt();
     } else if(status.resetPending) {
       status.resetPending = false;
-      addClocks(132);
+      step(132);
       r.vector = 0xfffc;
       interrupt();
     } else if(status.powerPending) {
       status.powerPending = false;
-      addClocks(186);
+      step(186);
       r.pc.l = bus.read(0xfffc, r.mdr);
       r.pc.h = bus.read(0xfffd, r.mdr);
     }
@@ -161,49 +149,47 @@ auto CPU::reset() -> void {
   r.vector = 0xfffc;  //reset vector address
 
   //$2140-217f
-  for(auto& port : status.port) port = 0x00;
+  for(auto& port : io.port) port = 0x00;
 
   //$2181-$2183
-  status.wramAddress = 0x000000;
+  io.wramAddress = 0x000000;
 
   //$4016-$4017
-  status.joypadStrobeLatch = 0;
-  status.joypad1_bits = ~0;
-  status.joypad2_bits = ~0;
+  io.joypadStrobeLatch = 0;
 
   //$4200
-  status.nmiEnabled = false;
-  status.hirqEnabled = false;
-  status.virqEnabled = false;
-  status.autoJoypadPoll = false;
+  io.nmiEnabled = false;
+  io.hirqEnabled = false;
+  io.virqEnabled = false;
+  io.autoJoypadPoll = false;
 
   //$4201
-  status.pio = 0xff;
+  io.pio = 0xff;
 
   //$4202-$4203
-  status.wrmpya = 0xff;
-  status.wrmpyb = 0xff;
+  io.wrmpya = 0xff;
+  io.wrmpyb = 0xff;
 
   //$4204-$4206
-  status.wrdiva = 0xffff;
-  status.wrdivb = 0xff;
+  io.wrdiva = 0xffff;
+  io.wrdivb = 0xff;
 
   //$4207-$420a
-  status.hirqPos = 0x01ff;
-  status.virqPos = 0x01ff;
+  io.hirqPos = 0x01ff;
+  io.virqPos = 0x01ff;
 
   //$420d
-  status.romSpeed = 8;
+  io.romSpeed = 8;
 
   //$4214-$4217
-  status.rddiv = 0x0000;
-  status.rdmpy = 0x0000;
+  io.rddiv = 0x0000;
+  io.rdmpy = 0x0000;
 
   //$4218-$421f
-  status.joy1 = 0x0000;
-  status.joy2 = 0x0000;
-  status.joy3 = 0x0000;
-  status.joy4 = 0x0000;
+  io.joy1 = 0x0000;
+  io.joy2 = 0x0000;
+  io.joy3 = 0x0000;
+  io.joy4 = 0x0000;
 
   //ALU
   alu.mpyctr = 0;
diff --git a/higan/sfc/cpu/cpu.hpp b/higan/sfc/cpu/cpu.hpp
index a0edd241..8265c9cb 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/cpu/cpu.hpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/cpu/cpu.hpp
@@ -5,14 +5,13 @@ struct CPU : Processor::R65816, Thread, PPUcounter {
 
   CPU();
 
-  alwaysinline auto step(uint clocks) -> void;
-  alwaysinline auto synchronizeSMP() -> void;
+  auto synchronizeSMP() -> void;
   auto synchronizePPU() -> void;
   auto synchronizeCoprocessors() -> void;
   auto synchronizePeripherals() -> void;
 
-  auto portRead(uint2 port) const -> uint8;
-  auto portWrite(uint2 port, uint8 data) -> void;
+  auto readPort(uint2 port) const -> uint8;
+  auto writePort(uint2 port, uint8 data) -> void;
 
   static auto Enter() -> void;
   auto main() -> void;
@@ -21,7 +20,7 @@ struct CPU : Processor::R65816, Thread, PPUcounter {
   auto reset() -> void;
 
   //dma.cpp
-  auto dmaAddClocks(uint clocks) -> void;
+  auto dmaStep(uint clocks) -> void;
   auto dmaTransferValid(uint8 bbus, uint24 abus) -> bool;
   auto dmaAddressValid(uint24 abus) -> bool;
   auto dmaRead(uint24 abus) -> uint8;
@@ -46,7 +45,7 @@ struct CPU : Processor::R65816, Thread, PPUcounter {
   auto hdmaInit() -> void;
 
   //memory.cpp
-  auto io() -> void override;
+  auto idle() -> void override;
   auto read(uint24 addr) -> uint8 override;
   auto write(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void override;
   alwaysinline auto speed(uint24 addr) const -> uint;
@@ -63,7 +62,7 @@ struct CPU : Processor::R65816, Thread, PPUcounter {
   //timing.cpp
   auto dmaCounter() const -> uint;
 
-  auto addClocks(uint clocks) -> void;
+  auto step(uint clocks) -> void;
   auto scanline() -> void;
 
   alwaysinline auto aluEdge() -> void;
@@ -138,8 +137,9 @@ privileged:
     bool autoJoypadLatch;
     uint autoJoypadCounter;
     uint autoJoypadClock;
+  } status;
 
-    //MMIO
+  struct IO {
     //$2140-217f
     uint8 port[4];
 
@@ -148,8 +148,6 @@ privileged:
 
     //$4016-$4017
     bool joypadStrobeLatch;
-    uint32 joypad1_bits;
-    uint32 joypad2_bits;
 
     //$4200
     bool nmiEnabled;
@@ -184,7 +182,7 @@ privileged:
     uint16 joy2;
     uint16 joy3;
     uint16 joy4;
-  } status;
+  } io;
 
   struct ALU {
     uint mpyctr;
@@ -218,8 +216,8 @@ privileged:
 
     //$43x5-$43x6
     union {
-      uint16 transferSize = 0;
-      uint16_t indirectAddress;
+      uint16 transferSize;
+      uint16 indirectAddress;
     };
 
     //$43x7
@@ -237,6 +235,8 @@ privileged:
     //internal state
     bool hdmaCompleted;
     bool hdmaDoTransfer;
+
+    Channel() : transferSize(0) {}
   } channel[8];
 
   struct Pipe {
diff --git a/higan/sfc/cpu/dma.cpp b/higan/sfc/cpu/dma.cpp
index d7c50ff4..af685248 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/cpu/dma.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/cpu/dma.cpp
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
-auto CPU::dmaAddClocks(uint clocks) -> void {
+auto CPU::dmaStep(uint clocks) -> void {
   status.dmaClocks += clocks;
-  addClocks(clocks);
+  step(clocks);
 }
 
 //=============
@@ -41,14 +41,14 @@ auto CPU::dmaWrite(bool valid, uint addr, uint8 data) -> void {
 
 auto CPU::dmaTransfer(bool direction, uint8 bbus, uint24 abus) -> void {
   if(direction == 0) {
-    dmaAddClocks(4);
+    dmaStep(4);
     r.mdr = dmaRead(abus);
-    dmaAddClocks(4);
+    dmaStep(4);
     dmaWrite(dmaTransferValid(bbus, abus), 0x2100 | bbus, r.mdr);
   } else {
-    dmaAddClocks(4);
+    dmaStep(4);
     r.mdr = dmaTransferValid(bbus, abus) ? bus.read(0x2100 | bbus, r.mdr) : (uint8)0x00;
-    dmaAddClocks(4);
+    dmaStep(4);
     dmaWrite(dmaAddressValid(abus), abus, r.mdr);
   }
 }
@@ -131,7 +131,7 @@ auto CPU::hdmaActiveChannels() -> uint {
 //==============
 
 auto CPU::dmaRun() -> void {
-  dmaAddClocks(8);
+  dmaStep(8);
   dmaWrite(false);
   dmaEdge();
 
@@ -144,7 +144,7 @@ auto CPU::dmaRun() -> void {
       dmaEdge();
     } while(channel[n].dmaEnabled && --channel[n].transferSize);
 
-    dmaAddClocks(8);
+    dmaStep(8);
     dmaWrite(false);
     dmaEdge();
 
@@ -155,9 +155,9 @@ auto CPU::dmaRun() -> void {
 }
 
 auto CPU::hdmaUpdate(uint n) -> void {
-  dmaAddClocks(4);
+  dmaStep(4);
   r.mdr = dmaRead(channel[n].sourceBank << 16 | channel[n].hdmaAddress);
-  dmaAddClocks(4);
+  dmaStep(4);
   dmaWrite(false);
 
   if((channel[n].lineCounter & 0x7f) == 0) {
@@ -168,18 +168,18 @@ auto CPU::hdmaUpdate(uint n) -> void {
     channel[n].hdmaDoTransfer = !channel[n].hdmaCompleted;
 
     if(channel[n].indirect) {
-      dmaAddClocks(4);
+      dmaStep(4);
       r.mdr = dmaRead(hdmaAddress(n));
       channel[n].indirectAddress = r.mdr << 8;
-      dmaAddClocks(4);
+      dmaStep(4);
       dmaWrite(false);
 
       if(!channel[n].hdmaCompleted || hdmaActiveAfter(n)) {
-        dmaAddClocks(4);
+        dmaStep(4);
         r.mdr = dmaRead(hdmaAddress(n));
         channel[n].indirectAddress >>= 8;
         channel[n].indirectAddress |= r.mdr << 8;
-        dmaAddClocks(4);
+        dmaStep(4);
         dmaWrite(false);
       }
     }
@@ -187,7 +187,7 @@ auto CPU::hdmaUpdate(uint n) -> void {
 }
 
 auto CPU::hdmaRun() -> void {
-  dmaAddClocks(8);
+  dmaStep(8);
   dmaWrite(false);
 
   for(auto n : range(8)) {
@@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ auto CPU::hdmaInitReset() -> void {
 }
 
 auto CPU::hdmaInit() -> void {
-  dmaAddClocks(8);
+  dmaStep(8);
   dmaWrite(false);
 
   for(auto n : range(8)) {
diff --git a/higan/sfc/cpu/io.cpp b/higan/sfc/cpu/io.cpp
index efc9f6bc..47858a3c 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/cpu/io.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/cpu/io.cpp
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ auto CPU::readCPU(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
 
   //WMDATA
   case 0x2180: {
-    return bus.read(0x7e0000 | status.wramAddress++, r.mdr);
+    return bus.read(0x7e0000 | io.wramAddress++, r.mdr);
   }
 
   //JOYSER0
@@ -65,37 +65,37 @@ auto CPU::readCPU(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
 
   //RDIO
   case 0x4213: {
-    return status.pio;
+    return io.pio;
   }
 
   //RDDIVL
   case 0x4214: {
-    return status.rddiv.byte(0);
+    return io.rddiv.byte(0);
   }
 
   //RDDIVH
   case 0x4215: {
-    return status.rddiv.byte(1);
+    return io.rddiv.byte(1);
   }
 
   //RDMPYL
   case 0x4216: {
-    return status.rdmpy.byte(0);
+    return io.rdmpy.byte(0);
   }
 
   //RDMPYH
   case 0x4217: {
-    return status.rdmpy.byte(1);
+    return io.rdmpy.byte(1);
   }
 
-  case 0x4218: return status.joy1.byte(0);  //JOY1L
-  case 0x4219: return status.joy1.byte(1);  //JOY1H
-  case 0x421a: return status.joy2.byte(0);  //JOY2L
-  case 0x421b: return status.joy2.byte(1);  //JOY2H
-  case 0x421c: return status.joy3.byte(0);  //JOY3L
-  case 0x421d: return status.joy3.byte(1);  //JOY3H
-  case 0x421e: return status.joy4.byte(0);  //JOY4L
-  case 0x421f: return status.joy4.byte(1);  //JOY4H
+  case 0x4218: return io.joy1.byte(0);  //JOY1L
+  case 0x4219: return io.joy1.byte(1);  //JOY1H
+  case 0x421a: return io.joy2.byte(0);  //JOY2L
+  case 0x421b: return io.joy2.byte(1);  //JOY2H
+  case 0x421c: return io.joy3.byte(0);  //JOY3L
+  case 0x421d: return io.joy3.byte(1);  //JOY3H
+  case 0x421e: return io.joy4.byte(0);  //JOY4L
+  case 0x421f: return io.joy4.byte(1);  //JOY4H
 
   }
 
@@ -158,7 +158,7 @@ auto CPU::readDMA(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
 
 auto CPU::writeAPU(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
   synchronizeSMP();
-  return portWrite(addr.bits(0,1), data);
+  return writePort(addr.bits(0,1), data);
 }
 
 auto CPU::writeCPU(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
@@ -166,12 +166,12 @@ auto CPU::writeCPU(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
 
   //WMDATA
   case 0x2180: {
-    return bus.write(0x7e0000 | status.wramAddress++, data);
+    return bus.write(0x7e0000 | io.wramAddress++, data);
   }
 
-  case 0x2181: status.wramAddress.bits( 0, 7) = data;        return;  //WMADDL
-  case 0x2182: status.wramAddress.bits( 8,15) = data;        return;  //WMADDM
-  case 0x2183: status.wramAddress.bit (16   ) = data.bit(0); return;  //WMADDH
+  case 0x2181: io.wramAddress.bits( 0, 7) = data;        return;  //WMADDL
+  case 0x2182: io.wramAddress.bits( 8,15) = data;        return;  //WMADDM
+  case 0x2183: io.wramAddress.bit (16   ) = data.bit(0); return;  //WMADDH
 
   //JOYSER0
   case 0x4016: {
@@ -185,54 +185,54 @@ auto CPU::writeCPU(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
 
   //NMITIMEN
   case 0x4200: {
-    status.autoJoypadPoll = data.bit(0);
+    io.autoJoypadPoll = data.bit(0);
     nmitimenUpdate(data);
     return;
   }
 
   //WRIO
   case 0x4201: {
-    if(status.pio.bit(7) && !data.bit(7)) ppu.latchCounters();
-    status.pio = data;
+    if(io.pio.bit(7) && !data.bit(7)) ppu.latchCounters();
+    io.pio = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //WRMPYA
-  case 0x4202: status.wrmpya = data; return;
+  case 0x4202: io.wrmpya = data; return;
 
   //WRMPYB
   case 0x4203: {
-    status.rdmpy = 0;
+    io.rdmpy = 0;
     if(alu.mpyctr || alu.divctr) return;
 
-    status.wrmpyb = data;
-    status.rddiv = (status.wrmpyb << 8) | status.wrmpya;
+    io.wrmpyb = data;
+    io.rddiv = (io.wrmpyb << 8) | io.wrmpya;
 
     alu.mpyctr = 8;  //perform multiplication over the next eight cycles
-    alu.shift = status.wrmpyb;
+    alu.shift = io.wrmpyb;
     return;
   }
 
-  case 0x4204: { status.wrdiva.byte(0) = data; return; }  //WRDIVL
-  case 0x4205: { status.wrdiva.byte(1) = data; return; }  //WRDIVH
+  case 0x4204: { io.wrdiva.byte(0) = data; return; }  //WRDIVL
+  case 0x4205: { io.wrdiva.byte(1) = data; return; }  //WRDIVH
 
   //WRDIVB
   case 0x4206: {
-    status.rdmpy = status.wrdiva;
+    io.rdmpy = io.wrdiva;
     if(alu.mpyctr || alu.divctr) return;
 
-    status.wrdivb = data;
+    io.wrdivb = data;
 
     alu.divctr = 16;  //perform division over the next sixteen cycles
-    alu.shift = status.wrdivb << 16;
+    alu.shift = io.wrdivb << 16;
     return;
   }
 
-  case 0x4207: status.hirqPos.bits(0,7) = data;        return;  //HTIMEL
-  case 0x4208: status.hirqPos.bit (8  ) = data.bit(0); return;  //HTIMEH
+  case 0x4207: io.hirqPos.bits(0,7) = data;        return;  //HTIMEL
+  case 0x4208: io.hirqPos.bit (8  ) = data.bit(0); return;  //HTIMEH
 
-  case 0x4209: status.virqPos.bits(0,7) = data;        return;  //VTIMEL
-  case 0x420a: status.virqPos.bit (8  ) = data.bit(0); return;  //VTIMEH
+  case 0x4209: io.virqPos.bits(0,7) = data;        return;  //VTIMEL
+  case 0x420a: io.virqPos.bit (8  ) = data.bit(0); return;  //VTIMEH
 
   //DMAEN
   case 0x420b: {
@@ -249,7 +249,7 @@ auto CPU::writeCPU(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
 
   //MEMSEL
   case 0x420d: {
-    status.romSpeed = data.bit(0) ? 6 : 8;
+    io.romSpeed = data.bit(0) ? 6 : 8;
     return;
   }
 
diff --git a/higan/sfc/cpu/irq.cpp b/higan/sfc/cpu/irq.cpp
index 5223b667..5d268e0c 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/cpu/irq.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/cpu/irq.cpp
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ auto CPU::pollInterrupts() -> void {
   //NMI hold
   if(status.nmiHold) {
     status.nmiHold = false;
-    if(status.nmiEnabled) status.nmiTransition = true;
+    if(io.nmiEnabled) status.nmiTransition = true;
   }
 
   //NMI test
@@ -25,15 +25,15 @@ auto CPU::pollInterrupts() -> void {
   //IRQ hold
   status.irqHold = false;
   if(status.irqLine) {
-    if(status.virqEnabled || status.hirqEnabled) status.irqTransition = true;
+    if(io.virqEnabled || io.hirqEnabled) status.irqTransition = true;
   }
 
   //IRQ test
-  bool irqValid = status.virqEnabled || status.hirqEnabled;
+  bool irqValid = io.virqEnabled || io.hirqEnabled;
   if(irqValid) {
-    if((status.virqEnabled && vcounter(10) != (status.virqPos))
-    || (status.hirqEnabled && hcounter(10) != (status.hirqPos + 1) * 4)
-    || (status.virqPos && vcounter(6) == 0)  //IRQs cannot trigger on last dot of field
+    if((io.virqEnabled && vcounter(10) != (io.virqPos))
+    || (io.hirqEnabled && hcounter(10) != (io.hirqPos + 1) * 4)
+    || (io.virqPos && vcounter(6) == 0)  //IRQs cannot trigger on last dot of field
     ) irqValid = false;
   }
   if(!status.irqValid && irqValid) {
@@ -45,24 +45,24 @@ auto CPU::pollInterrupts() -> void {
 }
 
 auto CPU::nmitimenUpdate(uint8 data) -> void {
-  bool nmiEnabled  = status.nmiEnabled;
-  bool virqEnabled = status.virqEnabled;
-  bool hirqEnabled = status.hirqEnabled;
-  status.nmiEnabled  = data & 0x80;
-  status.virqEnabled = data & 0x20;
-  status.hirqEnabled = data & 0x10;
+  bool nmiEnabled  = io.nmiEnabled;
+  bool virqEnabled = io.virqEnabled;
+  bool hirqEnabled = io.hirqEnabled;
+  io.nmiEnabled  = data & 0x80;
+  io.virqEnabled = data & 0x20;
+  io.hirqEnabled = data & 0x10;
 
   //0->1 edge sensitive transition
-  if(!nmiEnabled && status.nmiEnabled && status.nmiLine) {
+  if(!nmiEnabled && io.nmiEnabled && status.nmiLine) {
     status.nmiTransition = true;
   }
 
   //?->1 level sensitive transition
-  if(status.virqEnabled && !status.hirqEnabled && status.irqLine) {
+  if(io.virqEnabled && !io.hirqEnabled && status.irqLine) {
     status.irqTransition = true;
   }
 
-  if(!status.virqEnabled && !status.hirqEnabled) {
+  if(!io.virqEnabled && !io.hirqEnabled) {
     status.irqLine = false;
     status.irqTransition = false;
   }
diff --git a/higan/sfc/cpu/joypad.cpp b/higan/sfc/cpu/joypad.cpp
index 8bc97df4..cd14c400 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/cpu/joypad.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/cpu/joypad.cpp
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 auto CPU::stepAutoJoypadPoll() -> void {
   if(vcounter() >= ppu.vdisp()) {
     //cache enable state at first iteration
-    if(status.autoJoypadCounter == 0) status.autoJoypadLatch = status.autoJoypadPoll;
+    if(status.autoJoypadCounter == 0) status.autoJoypadLatch = io.autoJoypadPoll;
     status.autoJoypadActive = status.autoJoypadCounter <= 15;
 
     if(status.autoJoypadActive && status.autoJoypadLatch) {
@@ -16,10 +16,10 @@ auto CPU::stepAutoJoypadPoll() -> void {
       uint2 port0 = SuperFamicom::peripherals.controllerPort1->data();
       uint2 port1 = SuperFamicom::peripherals.controllerPort2->data();
 
-      status.joy1 = status.joy1 << 1 | port0.bit(0);
-      status.joy2 = status.joy2 << 1 | port1.bit(0);
-      status.joy3 = status.joy3 << 1 | port0.bit(1);
-      status.joy4 = status.joy4 << 1 | port1.bit(1);
+      io.joy1 = io.joy1 << 1 | port0.bit(0);
+      io.joy2 = io.joy2 << 1 | port1.bit(0);
+      io.joy3 = io.joy3 << 1 | port0.bit(1);
+      io.joy4 = io.joy4 << 1 | port1.bit(1);
     }
 
     status.autoJoypadCounter++;
diff --git a/higan/sfc/cpu/memory.cpp b/higan/sfc/cpu/memory.cpp
index 0f98b9c0..a31fa5eb 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/cpu/memory.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/cpu/memory.cpp
@@ -1,24 +1,24 @@
-auto CPU::portRead(uint2 port) const -> uint8 {
-  return status.port[port];
+auto CPU::readPort(uint2 port) const -> uint8 {
+  return io.port[port];
 }
 
-auto CPU::portWrite(uint2 port, uint8 data) -> void {
-  status.port[port] = data;
+auto CPU::writePort(uint2 port, uint8 data) -> void {
+  io.port[port] = data;
 }
 
-auto CPU::io() -> void {
+auto CPU::idle() -> void {
   status.clockCount = 6;
   dmaEdge();
-  addClocks(6);
+  step(6);
   aluEdge();
 }
 
 auto CPU::read(uint24 addr) -> uint8 {
   status.clockCount = speed(addr);
   dmaEdge();
-  addClocks(status.clockCount - 4);
+  step(status.clockCount - 4);
   r.mdr = bus.read(addr, r.mdr);
-  addClocks(4);
+  step(4);
   aluEdge();
   return r.mdr;
 }
@@ -27,15 +27,12 @@ auto CPU::write(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
   aluEdge();
   status.clockCount = speed(addr);
   dmaEdge();
-  addClocks(status.clockCount);
+  step(status.clockCount);
   bus.write(addr, r.mdr = data);
 }
 
 auto CPU::speed(uint24 addr) const -> uint {
-  if(addr & 0x408000) {
-    if(addr & 0x800000) return status.romSpeed;
-    return 8;
-  }
+  if(addr & 0x408000) return addr & 0x800000 ? io.romSpeed : 8;
   if((addr + 0x6000) & 0x4000) return 8;
   if((addr - 0x4000) & 0x7e00) return 6;
   return 12;
diff --git a/higan/sfc/cpu/serialization.cpp b/higan/sfc/cpu/serialization.cpp
index 162615de..6439ca60 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/cpu/serialization.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/cpu/serialization.cpp
@@ -50,39 +50,37 @@ auto CPU::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
   s.integer(status.autoJoypadCounter);
   s.integer(status.autoJoypadClock);
 
-  s.array(status.port);
+  s.array(io.port);
 
-  s.integer(status.wramAddress);
+  s.integer(io.wramAddress);
 
-  s.integer(status.joypadStrobeLatch);
-  s.integer(status.joypad1_bits);
-  s.integer(status.joypad2_bits);
+  s.integer(io.joypadStrobeLatch);
 
-  s.integer(status.nmiEnabled);
-  s.integer(status.hirqEnabled);
-  s.integer(status.virqEnabled);
-  s.integer(status.autoJoypadPoll);
+  s.integer(io.nmiEnabled);
+  s.integer(io.hirqEnabled);
+  s.integer(io.virqEnabled);
+  s.integer(io.autoJoypadPoll);
 
-  s.integer(status.pio);
+  s.integer(io.pio);
 
-  s.integer(status.wrmpya);
-  s.integer(status.wrmpyb);
+  s.integer(io.wrmpya);
+  s.integer(io.wrmpyb);
 
-  s.integer(status.wrdiva);
-  s.integer(status.wrdivb);
+  s.integer(io.wrdiva);
+  s.integer(io.wrdivb);
 
-  s.integer(status.hirqPos);
-  s.integer(status.virqPos);
+  s.integer(io.hirqPos);
+  s.integer(io.virqPos);
 
-  s.integer(status.romSpeed);
+  s.integer(io.romSpeed);
 
-  s.integer(status.rddiv);
-  s.integer(status.rdmpy);
+  s.integer(io.rddiv);
+  s.integer(io.rdmpy);
 
-  s.integer(status.joy1);
-  s.integer(status.joy2);
-  s.integer(status.joy3);
-  s.integer(status.joy4);
+  s.integer(io.joy1);
+  s.integer(io.joy2);
+  s.integer(io.joy3);
+  s.integer(io.joy4);
 
   s.integer(alu.mpyctr);
   s.integer(alu.divctr);
diff --git a/higan/sfc/cpu/timing.cpp b/higan/sfc/cpu/timing.cpp
index 3ceda62b..926efb21 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/cpu/timing.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/cpu/timing.cpp
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ auto CPU::dmaCounter() const -> uint {
   return (status.dmaCounter + hcounter()) & 7;
 }
 
-auto CPU::addClocks(uint clocks) -> void {
+auto CPU::step(uint clocks) -> void {
   status.irqLock = false;
   uint ticks = clocks >> 1;
   while(ticks--) {
@@ -10,7 +10,15 @@ auto CPU::addClocks(uint clocks) -> void {
     if(hcounter() & 2) pollInterrupts();
   }
 
-  step(clocks);
+  smp.clock -= clocks * (uint64)smp.frequency;
+  ppu.clock -= clocks;
+  for(auto coprocessor : coprocessors) {
+    coprocessor->clock -= clocks * (uint64)coprocessor->frequency;
+  }
+  for(auto peripheral : peripherals) {
+    peripheral->clock -= clocks * (uint64)peripheral->frequency;
+  }
+  synchronizePeripherals();
 
   status.autoJoypadClock += clocks;
   if(status.autoJoypadClock >= 256) {
@@ -20,7 +28,7 @@ auto CPU::addClocks(uint clocks) -> void {
 
   if(!status.dramRefreshed && hcounter() >= status.dramRefreshPosition) {
     status.dramRefreshed = true;
-    addClocks(40);
+    step(40);
   }
 
   #if defined(DEBUGGER)
@@ -62,18 +70,18 @@ auto CPU::scanline() -> void {
 auto CPU::aluEdge() -> void {
   if(alu.mpyctr) {
     alu.mpyctr--;
-    if(status.rddiv & 1) status.rdmpy += alu.shift;
-    status.rddiv >>= 1;
+    if(io.rddiv & 1) io.rdmpy += alu.shift;
+    io.rddiv >>= 1;
     alu.shift <<= 1;
   }
 
   if(alu.divctr) {
     alu.divctr--;
-    status.rddiv <<= 1;
+    io.rddiv <<= 1;
     alu.shift >>= 1;
-    if(status.rdmpy >= alu.shift) {
-      status.rdmpy -= alu.shift;
-      status.rddiv |= 1;
+    if(io.rdmpy >= alu.shift) {
+      io.rdmpy -= alu.shift;
+      io.rddiv |= 1;
     }
   }
 }
@@ -92,11 +100,11 @@ auto CPU::dmaEdge() -> void {
       status.hdmaPending = false;
       if(hdmaEnabledChannels()) {
         if(!dmaEnabledChannels()) {
-          dmaAddClocks(8 - dmaCounter());
+          dmaStep(8 - dmaCounter());
         }
         status.hdmaMode == 0 ? hdmaInit() : hdmaRun();
         if(!dmaEnabledChannels()) {
-          addClocks(status.clockCount - (status.dmaClocks % status.clockCount));
+          step(status.clockCount - (status.dmaClocks % status.clockCount));
           status.dmaActive = false;
         }
       }
@@ -105,9 +113,9 @@ auto CPU::dmaEdge() -> void {
     if(status.dmaPending) {
       status.dmaPending = false;
       if(dmaEnabledChannels()) {
-        dmaAddClocks(8 - dmaCounter());
+        dmaStep(8 - dmaCounter());
         dmaRun();
-        addClocks(status.clockCount - (status.dmaClocks % status.clockCount));
+        step(status.clockCount - (status.dmaClocks % status.clockCount));
         status.dmaActive = false;
       }
     }
diff --git a/higan/sfc/interface/interface.cpp b/higan/sfc/interface/interface.cpp
index 9d09d90a..20791405 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/interface/interface.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/interface/interface.cpp
@@ -244,8 +244,8 @@ auto Interface::cheatSet(const lstring& list) -> void {
       lstring codes = codeset.split("+");
       for(auto& code : codes) {
         lstring part = code.split("/");
-        if(part.size() == 2) GameBoy::cheat.append(hex(part[0]), hex(part[1]));
-        if(part.size() == 3) GameBoy::cheat.append(hex(part[0]), hex(part[1]), hex(part[2]));
+        if(part.size() == 2) GameBoy::cheat.append(part[0].hex(), part[1].hex());
+        if(part.size() == 3) GameBoy::cheat.append(part[0].hex(), part[1].hex(), part[2].hex());
       }
     }
     return;
@@ -256,8 +256,8 @@ auto Interface::cheatSet(const lstring& list) -> void {
     lstring codes = codeset.split("+");
     for(auto& code : codes) {
       lstring part = code.split("/");
-      if(part.size() == 2) cheat.append(hex(part[0]), hex(part[1]));
-      if(part.size() == 3) cheat.append(hex(part[0]), hex(part[1]), hex(part[2]));
+      if(part.size() == 2) cheat.append(part[0].hex(), part[1].hex());
+      if(part.size() == 3) cheat.append(part[0].hex(), part[1].hex(), part[2].hex());
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/higan/sfc/memory/memory.cpp b/higan/sfc/memory/memory.cpp
index 28b7e4e3..06f1d46f 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/memory/memory.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/memory/memory.cpp
@@ -35,7 +35,6 @@ auto Bus::map(
   while(counter[id]) {
     if(++id >= 256) return print("SFC error: bus map exhausted\n");
   }
-//print("map[", hex(id, 2), "] => ", addr, "\n");
 
   reader[id] = read;
   writer[id] = write;
@@ -47,10 +46,10 @@ auto Bus::map(
     for(auto& addr : addrs) {
       auto bankRange = bank.split("-", 1L);
       auto addrRange = addr.split("-", 1L);
-      uint bankLo = hex(bankRange(0));
-      uint bankHi = hex(bankRange(1, bankRange(0)));
-      uint addrLo = hex(addrRange(0));
-      uint addrHi = hex(addrRange(1, addrRange(0)));
+      uint bankLo = bankRange(0).hex();
+      uint bankHi = bankRange(1, bankRange(0)).hex();
+      uint addrLo = addrRange(0).hex();
+      uint addrHi = addrRange(1, addrRange(0)).hex();
 
       for(uint bank = bankLo; bank <= bankHi; bank++) {
         for(uint addr = addrLo; addr <= addrHi; addr++) {
@@ -79,10 +78,10 @@ auto Bus::unmap(const string& addr) -> void {
     for(auto& addr : addrs) {
       auto bankRange = bank.split("-", 1L);
       auto addrRange = addr.split("-", 1L);
-      uint bankLo = hex(bankRange(0));
-      uint bankHi = hex(bankRange(1, bankRange(0)));
-      uint addrLo = hex(addrRange(0));
-      uint addrHi = hex(addrRange(1, addrRange(1)));
+      uint bankLo = bankRange(0).hex();
+      uint bankHi = bankRange(1, bankRange(0)).hex();
+      uint addrLo = addrRange(0).hex();
+      uint addrHi = addrRange(1, addrRange(1)).hex();
 
       for(uint bank = bankLo; bank <= bankHi; bank++) {
         for(uint addr = addrLo; addr <= addrHi; addr++) {
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/background/background.cpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/background/background.cpp
index 1eb4b95f..34407330 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/background/background.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/background/background.cpp
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
 #include "mode7.cpp"
 
 auto PPU::Background::voffset() const -> uint16 {
-  if(r.mosaic) return latch.voffset;
-  return r.voffset;
+  if(io.mosaic) return latch.voffset;
+  return io.voffset;
 }
 
 auto PPU::Background::hoffset() const -> uint16 {
-  if(r.mosaic) return latch.hoffset;
-  return r.hoffset;
+  if(io.mosaic) return latch.hoffset;
+  return io.hoffset;
 }
 
 //V = 0, H = 0
@@ -20,70 +20,70 @@ auto PPU::Background::scanline() -> void {
 
 //H = 28
 auto PPU::Background::begin() -> void {
-  bool hires = (ppu.r.bgMode == 5 || ppu.r.bgMode == 6);
+  bool hires = (ppu.io.bgMode == 5 || ppu.io.bgMode == 6);
   x = -7;
   y = ppu.vcounter();
 
   if(y == 1) {
-    mosaic.vcounter = r.mosaic + 1;
+    mosaic.vcounter = io.mosaic + 1;
     mosaic.voffset = 1;
-    latch.hoffset = r.hoffset;
-    latch.voffset = r.voffset;
+    latch.hoffset = io.hoffset;
+    latch.voffset = io.voffset;
   } else if(--mosaic.vcounter == 0) {
-    mosaic.vcounter = r.mosaic + 1;
-    mosaic.voffset += r.mosaic + 1;
-    latch.hoffset = r.hoffset;
-    latch.voffset = r.voffset;
+    mosaic.vcounter = io.mosaic + 1;
+    mosaic.voffset += io.mosaic + 1;
+    latch.hoffset = io.hoffset;
+    latch.voffset = io.voffset;
   }
 
   tileCounter = (7 - (latch.hoffset & 7)) << hires;
   for(auto& d : data) d = 0;
 
-  mosaic.hcounter = r.mosaic + 1;
+  mosaic.hcounter = io.mosaic + 1;
   mosaic.hoffset = 0;
 
-  if(r.mode == Mode::Mode7) return beginMode7();
-  if(r.mosaic == 0) {
-    latch.hoffset = r.hoffset;
-    latch.voffset = r.voffset;
+  if(io.mode == Mode::Mode7) return beginMode7();
+  if(io.mosaic == 0) {
+    latch.hoffset = io.hoffset;
+    latch.voffset = io.voffset;
   }
 }
 
 auto PPU::Background::getTile() -> void {
-  bool hires = (ppu.r.bgMode == 5 || ppu.r.bgMode == 6);
+  bool hires = (ppu.io.bgMode == 5 || ppu.io.bgMode == 6);
 
-  uint colorDepth = (r.mode == Mode::BPP2 ? 0 : r.mode == Mode::BPP4 ? 1 : 2);
-  uint paletteOffset = (ppu.r.bgMode == 0 ? id << 5 : 0);
+  uint colorDepth = (io.mode == Mode::BPP2 ? 0 : io.mode == Mode::BPP4 ? 1 : 2);
+  uint paletteOffset = (ppu.io.bgMode == 0 ? id << 5 : 0);
   uint paletteSize = 2 << colorDepth;
   uint tileMask = ppu.vram.mask >> (3 + colorDepth);
-  uint tiledataIndex = r.tiledataAddress >> (3 + colorDepth);
+  uint tiledataIndex = io.tiledataAddress >> (3 + colorDepth);
 
-  uint tileHeight = (r.tileSize == TileSize::Size8x8 ? 3 : 4);
+  uint tileHeight = (io.tileSize == TileSize::Size8x8 ? 3 : 4);
   uint tileWidth = (!hires ? tileHeight : 4);
 
   uint width = 256 << hires;
 
   uint hmask = (tileHeight == 3 ? width : width << 1);
   uint vmask = hmask;
-  if(r.screenSize & 1) hmask <<= 1;
-  if(r.screenSize & 2) vmask <<= 1;
+  if(io.screenSize & 1) hmask <<= 1;
+  if(io.screenSize & 2) vmask <<= 1;
   hmask--;
   vmask--;
 
   uint px = x << hires;
-  uint py = (r.mosaic == 0 ? y : mosaic.voffset);
+  uint py = (io.mosaic == 0 ? y : mosaic.voffset);
 
   uint hscroll = hoffset();
   uint vscroll = voffset();
   if(hires) {
     hscroll <<= 1;
-    if(ppu.r.interlace) py = (py << 1) + ppu.field();
+    if(ppu.io.interlace) py = (py << 1) + ppu.field();
   }
 
   uint hoffset = hscroll + px;
   uint voffset = vscroll + py;
 
-  if(ppu.r.bgMode == 2 || ppu.r.bgMode == 4 || ppu.r.bgMode == 6) {
+  if(ppu.io.bgMode == 2 || ppu.io.bgMode == 4 || ppu.io.bgMode == 6) {
     uint16 offsetX = (x + (hscroll & 7));
 
     if(offsetX >= 8) {
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ auto PPU::Background::getTile() -> void {
       uint vval = ppu.bg3.getTile((offsetX - 8) + (ppu.bg3.hoffset() & ~7), ppu.bg3.voffset() + 8);
       uint validMask = (id == ID::BG1 ? 0x2000 : 0x4000);
 
-      if(ppu.r.bgMode == 4) {
+      if(ppu.io.bgMode == 4) {
         if(hval & validMask) {
           if((hval & 0x8000) == 0) {
             hoffset = offsetX + (hval & ~7);
@@ -109,9 +109,9 @@ auto PPU::Background::getTile() -> void {
   hoffset &= hmask;
   voffset &= vmask;
 
-  uint screenX = (r.screenSize & 1 ? 32 << 5 : 0);
-  uint screenY = (r.screenSize & 2 ? 32 << 5 : 0);
-  if(r.screenSize == 3) screenY <<= 1;
+  uint screenX = (io.screenSize & 1 ? 32 << 5 : 0);
+  uint screenY = (io.screenSize & 2 ? 32 << 5 : 0);
+  if(io.screenSize == 3) screenY <<= 1;
 
   uint tx = hoffset >> tileWidth;
   uint ty = voffset >> tileHeight;
@@ -120,11 +120,11 @@ auto PPU::Background::getTile() -> void {
   if(tx & 0x20) offset += screenX;
   if(ty & 0x20) offset += screenY;
 
-  uint16 address = r.screenAddress + offset;
+  uint16 address = io.screenAddress + offset;
   tile = ppu.vram[address];
   bool mirrorY = tile & 0x8000;
   bool mirrorX = tile & 0x4000;
-  priority = r.priority[bool(tile & 0x2000)];
+  priority = io.priority[bool(tile & 0x2000)];
   paletteNumber = (tile >> 10) & 7;
   paletteIndex = paletteOffset + (paletteNumber << paletteSize);
 
@@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ auto PPU::Background::getTile() -> void {
   if(mirrorY) voffset ^= 7;
   offset = (character << (3 + colorDepth)) + (voffset & 7);
 
-  switch(r.mode) {
+  switch(io.mode) {
   case Mode::BPP8:
     data[1].bits(16,31) = ppu.vram[offset + 24];
     data[1].bits( 0,15) = ppu.vram[offset + 16];
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ auto PPU::Background::getTile() -> void {
 
 auto PPU::Background::run(bool screen) -> void {
   if(ppu.vcounter() == 0) return;
-  bool hires = (ppu.r.bgMode == 5 || ppu.r.bgMode == 6);
+  bool hires = (ppu.io.bgMode == 5 || ppu.io.bgMode == 6);
 
   if(screen == Screen::Below) {
     output.above.priority = 0;
@@ -167,12 +167,12 @@ auto PPU::Background::run(bool screen) -> void {
     getTile();
   }
 
-  if(r.mode == Mode::Mode7) return runMode7();
+  if(io.mode == Mode::Mode7) return runMode7();
 
   uint8 palette = getTileColor();
   if(x == 0) mosaic.hcounter = 1;
   if(x >= 0 && --mosaic.hcounter == 0) {
-    mosaic.hcounter = r.mosaic + 1;
+    mosaic.hcounter = io.mosaic + 1;
     mosaic.priority = priority;
     mosaic.palette = palette ? paletteIndex + palette : 0;
     mosaic.tile = tile;
@@ -180,14 +180,14 @@ auto PPU::Background::run(bool screen) -> void {
   if(screen == Screen::Above) x++;
   if(mosaic.palette == 0) return;
 
-  if(!hires || screen == Screen::Above) if(r.aboveEnable) output.above = mosaic;
-  if(!hires || screen == Screen::Below) if(r.belowEnable) output.below = mosaic;
+  if(!hires || screen == Screen::Above) if(io.aboveEnable) output.above = mosaic;
+  if(!hires || screen == Screen::Below) if(io.belowEnable) output.below = mosaic;
 }
 
 auto PPU::Background::getTileColor() -> uint {
   uint color = 0;
 
-  switch(r.mode) {
+  switch(io.mode) {
   case Mode::BPP8:
     color += data[1] >> 24 & 0x80;
     color += data[1] >> 17 & 0x40;
@@ -207,17 +207,17 @@ auto PPU::Background::getTileColor() -> uint {
 }
 
 auto PPU::Background::reset() -> void {
-  r.tiledataAddress = (random(0x0000) & 0x0f) << 12;
-  r.screenAddress = (random(0x0000) & 0xfc) << 8;
-  r.screenSize = random(0);
-  r.mosaic = random(0);
-  r.tileSize = random(0);
-  r.mode = 0;
-  for(auto& p : r.priority) p = 0;
-  r.aboveEnable = random(0);
-  r.belowEnable = random(0);
-  r.hoffset = random(0x0000);
-  r.voffset = random(0x0000);
+  io.tiledataAddress = (random(0x0000) & 0x0f) << 12;
+  io.screenAddress = (random(0x0000) & 0xfc) << 8;
+  io.screenSize = random(0);
+  io.mosaic = random(0);
+  io.tileSize = random(0);
+  io.mode = 0;
+  for(auto& p : io.priority) p = 0;
+  io.aboveEnable = random(0);
+  io.belowEnable = random(0);
+  io.hoffset = random(0x0000);
+  io.voffset = random(0x0000);
 
   latch.hoffset = 0;
   latch.voffset = 0;
@@ -248,20 +248,20 @@ auto PPU::Background::reset() -> void {
 }
 
 auto PPU::Background::getTile(uint x, uint y) -> uint {
-  bool hires = (ppu.r.bgMode == 5 || ppu.r.bgMode == 6);
-  uint tileHeight = (r.tileSize == TileSize::Size8x8 ? 3 : 4);
+  bool hires = (ppu.io.bgMode == 5 || ppu.io.bgMode == 6);
+  uint tileHeight = (io.tileSize == TileSize::Size8x8 ? 3 : 4);
   uint tileWidth = (!hires ? tileHeight : 4);
   uint width = (!hires ? 256 : 512);
   uint maskX = (tileHeight == 3 ? width : width << 1);
   uint maskY = maskX;
-  if(r.screenSize & 1) maskX <<= 1;
-  if(r.screenSize & 2) maskY <<= 1;
+  if(io.screenSize & 1) maskX <<= 1;
+  if(io.screenSize & 2) maskY <<= 1;
   maskX--;
   maskY--;
 
-  uint screenX = (r.screenSize & 1 ? 32 << 5 : 0);
-  uint screenY = (r.screenSize & 2 ? 32 << 5 : 0);
-  if(r.screenSize == 3) screenY <<= 1;
+  uint screenX = (io.screenSize & 1 ? 32 << 5 : 0);
+  uint screenY = (io.screenSize & 2 ? 32 << 5 : 0);
+  if(io.screenSize == 3) screenY <<= 1;
 
   x = (x & maskX) >> tileWidth;
   y = (y & maskY) >> tileHeight;
@@ -270,6 +270,6 @@ auto PPU::Background::getTile(uint x, uint y) -> uint {
   if(x & 0x20) offset += screenX;
   if(y & 0x20) offset += screenY;
 
-  uint16 address = r.screenAddress + offset;
+  uint16 address = io.screenAddress + offset;
   return ppu.vram[address];
 }
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/background/background.hpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/background/background.hpp
index 684e5083..5879d2fb 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/background/background.hpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/background/background.hpp
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ struct Background {
   struct TileSize { enum : uint { Size8x8, Size16x16 }; };
   struct Screen { enum : uint { Above, Below }; };
 
-  struct Registers {
+  struct IO {
     uint16 tiledataAddress;
     uint16 screenAddress;
     uint2 screenSize;
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ struct Background {
 
     uint16 hoffset;
     uint16 voffset;
-  } r;
+  } io;
 
   struct Latch {
     uint16 hoffset;
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/background/mode7.cpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/background/mode7.cpp
index bdc5f7af..71d3b21a 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/background/mode7.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/background/mode7.cpp
@@ -5,18 +5,18 @@ auto PPU::Background::clip(int n) -> int {
 
 //H = 28
 auto PPU::Background::beginMode7() -> void {
-  latch.hoffset = ppu.r.hoffsetMode7;
-  latch.voffset = ppu.r.voffsetMode7;
+  latch.hoffset = ppu.io.hoffsetMode7;
+  latch.voffset = ppu.io.voffsetMode7;
 }
 
 auto PPU::Background::runMode7() -> void {
-  int a = (int16)ppu.r.m7a;
-  int b = (int16)ppu.r.m7b;
-  int c = (int16)ppu.r.m7c;
-  int d = (int16)ppu.r.m7d;
+  int a = (int16)ppu.io.m7a;
+  int b = (int16)ppu.io.m7b;
+  int c = (int16)ppu.io.m7c;
+  int d = (int16)ppu.io.m7d;
 
-  int cx = (int13)ppu.r.m7x;
-  int cy = (int13)ppu.r.m7y;
+  int cx = (int13)ppu.io.m7x;
+  int cy = (int13)ppu.io.m7y;
   int hoffset = (int13)latch.hoffset;
   int voffset = (int13)latch.voffset;
 
@@ -25,12 +25,12 @@ auto PPU::Background::runMode7() -> void {
   uint y = ppu.bg1.mosaic.voffset;  //BG2 vertical mosaic uses BG1 mosaic size
 
   if(--mosaic.hcounter == 0) {
-    mosaic.hcounter = r.mosaic + 1;
-    mosaic.hoffset += r.mosaic + 1;
+    mosaic.hcounter = io.mosaic + 1;
+    mosaic.hoffset += io.mosaic + 1;
   }
 
-  if(ppu.r.hflipMode7) x = 255 - x;
-  if(ppu.r.vflipMode7) y = 255 - y;
+  if(ppu.io.hflipMode7) x = 255 - x;
+  if(ppu.io.vflipMode7) y = 255 - y;
 
   int psx = ((a * clip(hoffset - cx)) & ~63) + ((b * clip(voffset - cy)) & ~63) + ((b * y) & ~63) + (cx << 8);
   int psy = ((c * clip(hoffset - cx)) & ~63) + ((d * clip(voffset - cy)) & ~63) + ((d * y) & ~63) + (cy << 8);
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ auto PPU::Background::runMode7() -> void {
 
   uint tile;
   uint palette;
-  switch(ppu.r.repeatMode7) {
+  switch(ppu.io.repeatMode7) {
   //screen repetition outside of screen area
   case 0:
   case 1:
@@ -81,21 +81,21 @@ auto PPU::Background::runMode7() -> void {
 
   uint priority;
   if(id == ID::BG1) {
-    priority = r.priority[0];
+    priority = io.priority[0];
   } else if(id == ID::BG2) {
-    priority = r.priority[bool(palette & 0x80)];
+    priority = io.priority[bool(palette & 0x80)];
     palette &= 0x7f;
   }
 
   if(palette == 0) return;
 
-  if(r.aboveEnable) {
+  if(io.aboveEnable) {
     output.above.palette = palette;
     output.above.priority = priority;
     output.above.tile = 0;
   }
 
-  if(r.belowEnable) {
+  if(io.belowEnable) {
     output.below.palette = palette;
     output.below.priority = priority;
     output.below.tile = 0;
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/io.cpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/io.cpp
index 1b192468..766a38b4 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/io.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/io.cpp
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 auto PPU::getVramAddress() -> uint16 {
-  uint16 address = r.vramAddress;
-  switch(r.vramMapping) {
+  uint16 address = io.vramAddress;
+  switch(io.vramMapping) {
   case 0: return (address);
   case 1: return (address & 0xff00) | ((address & 0x001f) << 3) | ((address >> 5) & 7);
   case 2: return (address & 0xfe00) | ((address & 0x003f) << 3) | ((address >> 6) & 7);
@@ -10,12 +10,11 @@ auto PPU::getVramAddress() -> uint16 {
 }
 
 auto PPU::vramAccessible() const -> bool {
-  return r.displayDisable || vcounter() >= vdisp();
+  return io.displayDisable || vcounter() >= vdisp();
 }
 
 auto PPU::oamWrite(uint addr, uint8 data) -> void {
-  oam[addr] = data;
-  obj.update(addr, data);
+  obj.oam.write(addr, data);
 }
 
 auto PPU::readIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
@@ -33,21 +32,21 @@ auto PPU::readIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
 
   //MPYL
   case 0x2134: {
-    uint result = (int16)r.m7a * (int8)(r.m7b >> 8);
+    uint result = (int16)io.m7a * (int8)(io.m7b >> 8);
     ppu1.mdr = (result >>  0);
     return ppu1.mdr;
   }
 
   //MPYM
   case 0x2135: {
-    uint result = (int16)r.m7a * (int8)(r.m7b >> 8);
+    uint result = (int16)io.m7a * (int8)(io.m7b >> 8);
     ppu1.mdr = (result >>  8);
     return ppu1.mdr;
   }
 
   //MPYH
   case 0x2136: {
-    uint result = (int16)r.m7a * (int8)(r.m7b >> 8);
+    uint result = (int16)io.m7a * (int8)(io.m7b >> 8);
     ppu1.mdr = (result >> 16);
     return ppu1.mdr;
   }
@@ -55,16 +54,16 @@ auto PPU::readIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
   //SLHV
   case 0x2137: {
     if(cpu.pio() & 0x80) latchCounters();
-    return cpu.r.mdr;
+    return data;  //CPU MDR
   }
 
   //OAMDATAREAD
   case 0x2138: {
-    uint10 address = r.oamAddress++;
-    if(!r.displayDisable && vcounter() < vdisp()) address = latch.oamAddress;
+    uint10 address = io.oamAddress++;
+    if(!io.displayDisable && vcounter() < vdisp()) address = latch.oamAddress;
     if(address & 0x0200) address &= 0x021f;
 
-    ppu1.mdr = oam[address];
+    ppu1.mdr = obj.oam.read(address);
     obj.setFirstSprite();
     return ppu1.mdr;
   }
@@ -72,9 +71,9 @@ auto PPU::readIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
   //VMDATALREAD
   case 0x2139: {
     ppu1.mdr = latch.vram >> 0;
-    if(r.vramIncrementMode == 0) {
+    if(io.vramIncrementMode == 0) {
       latch.vram = vramAccessible() ? vram[getVramAddress()] : (uint16)0;
-      r.vramAddress += r.vramIncrementSize;
+      io.vramAddress += io.vramIncrementSize;
     }
     return ppu1.mdr;
   }
@@ -82,26 +81,26 @@ auto PPU::readIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
   //VMDATAHREAD
   case 0x213a: {
     ppu1.mdr = latch.vram >> 8;
-    if(r.vramIncrementMode == 1) {
+    if(io.vramIncrementMode == 1) {
       latch.vram = vramAccessible() ? vram[getVramAddress()] : (uint16)0;
-      r.vramAddress += r.vramIncrementSize;
+      io.vramAddress += io.vramIncrementSize;
     }
     return ppu1.mdr;
   }
 
   //CGDATAREAD
   case 0x213b: {
-    auto address = r.cgramAddress;
-    if(!r.displayDisable
+    auto address = io.cgramAddress;
+    if(!io.displayDisable
     && vcounter() > 0 && vcounter() < vdisp()
     && hcounter() >= 88 && hcounter() < 1096
     ) address = latch.cgramAddress;
 
-    if(r.cgramAddressLatch++) {
-      ppu2.mdr  = cgram[address].byte(0);
+    if(io.cgramAddressLatch++) {
+      ppu2.mdr  = screen.cgram[address].byte(0);
     } else {
       ppu2.mdr &= 0x80;
-      ppu2.mdr |= cgram[address].byte(1);
+      ppu2.mdr |= screen.cgram[address].byte(1);
     }
     return ppu2.mdr;
   }
@@ -109,10 +108,10 @@ auto PPU::readIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
   //OPHCT
   case 0x213c: {
     if(latch.hcounter == 0) {
-      ppu2.mdr  = (r.hcounter >> 0);
+      ppu2.mdr  = (io.hcounter >> 0);
     } else {
       ppu2.mdr &= 0xfe;
-      ppu2.mdr |= (r.hcounter >> 8) & 1;
+      ppu2.mdr |= (io.hcounter >> 8) & 1;
     }
     latch.hcounter ^= 1;
     return ppu2.mdr;
@@ -121,10 +120,10 @@ auto PPU::readIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
   //OPVCT
   case 0x213d: {
     if(latch.vcounter == 0) {
-      ppu2.mdr  = (r.vcounter >> 0);
+      ppu2.mdr  = (io.vcounter >> 0);
     } else {
       ppu2.mdr &= 0xfe;
-      ppu2.mdr |= (r.vcounter >> 8) & 1;
+      ppu2.mdr |= (io.vcounter >> 8) & 1;
     }
     latch.vcounter ^= 1;
     return ppu2.mdr;
@@ -133,8 +132,8 @@ auto PPU::readIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> uint8 {
   //STAT77
   case 0x213e: {
     ppu1.mdr &= 0x10;
-    ppu1.mdr |= obj.r.timeOver << 7;
-    ppu1.mdr |= obj.r.rangeOver << 6;
+    ppu1.mdr |= obj.io.timeOver << 7;
+    ppu1.mdr |= obj.io.rangeOver << 6;
     ppu1.mdr |= ppu1.version & 0x0f;
     return ppu1.mdr;
   }
@@ -169,40 +168,40 @@ auto PPU::writeIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
 
   //INIDISP
   case 0x2100: {
-    if(r.displayDisable && vcounter() == vdisp()) obj.addressReset();
-    r.displayBrightness = data.bits(0,3);
-    r.displayDisable    = data.bit (7);
+    if(io.displayDisable && vcounter() == vdisp()) obj.addressReset();
+    io.displayBrightness = data.bits(0,3);
+    io.displayDisable    = data.bit (7);
     return;
   }
 
   //OBSEL
   case 0x2101: {
-    obj.r.tiledataAddress = data.bits(0,2) << 13;
-    obj.r.nameSelect      = data.bits(3,4);
-    obj.r.baseSize        = data.bits(5,7);
+    obj.io.tiledataAddress = data.bits(0,2) << 13;
+    obj.io.nameselect      = data.bits(3,4);
+    obj.io.baseSize        = data.bits(5,7);
     return;
   }
 
   //OAMADDL
   case 0x2102: {
-    r.oamBaseAddress = (r.oamBaseAddress & 0x0200) | (data << 1);
+    io.oamBaseAddress = (io.oamBaseAddress & 0x0200) | (data << 1);
     obj.addressReset();
     return;
   }
 
   //OAMADDH
   case 0x2103: {
-    r.oamPriority = data & 0x80;
-    r.oamBaseAddress = ((data & 0x01) << 9) | (r.oamBaseAddress & 0x01fe);
+    io.oamPriority = data & 0x80;
+    io.oamBaseAddress = ((data & 0x01) << 9) | (io.oamBaseAddress & 0x01fe);
     obj.addressReset();
     return;
   }
 
   //OAMDATA
   case 0x2104: {
-    bool l = r.oamAddress & 1;
-    uint10 address = r.oamAddress++;
-    if(!r.displayDisable && vcounter() < vdisp()) address = latch.oamAddress;
+    bool l = io.oamAddress & 1;
+    uint10 address = io.oamAddress++;
+    if(!io.displayDisable && vcounter() < vdisp()) address = latch.oamAddress;
     if(address & 0x0200) address &= 0x021f;
 
     if(l == 0) latch.oam = data;
@@ -218,12 +217,12 @@ auto PPU::writeIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
 
   //BGMODE
   case 0x2105: {
-    r.bgMode       = data.bits(0,2);
-    r.bgPriority   = data.bit (3);
-    bg1.r.tileSize = data.bit (4);
-    bg2.r.tileSize = data.bit (5);
-    bg3.r.tileSize = data.bit (6);
-    bg4.r.tileSize = data.bit (7);
+    io.bgMode       = data.bits(0,2);
+    io.bgPriority   = data.bit (3);
+    bg1.io.tileSize = data.bit (4);
+    bg2.io.tileSize = data.bit (5);
+    bg3.io.tileSize = data.bit (6);
+    bg4.io.tileSize = data.bit (7);
     updateVideoMode();
     return;
   }
@@ -231,140 +230,136 @@ auto PPU::writeIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
   //MOSAIC
   case 0x2106: {
     uint mosaicSize = data.bits(4,7);
-    bg1.r.mosaic = data.bit(0) ? mosaicSize : 0;
-    bg2.r.mosaic = data.bit(1) ? mosaicSize : 0;
-    bg3.r.mosaic = data.bit(2) ? mosaicSize : 0;
-    bg4.r.mosaic = data.bit(3) ? mosaicSize : 0;
+    bg1.io.mosaic = data.bit(0) ? mosaicSize : 0;
+    bg2.io.mosaic = data.bit(1) ? mosaicSize : 0;
+    bg3.io.mosaic = data.bit(2) ? mosaicSize : 0;
+    bg4.io.mosaic = data.bit(3) ? mosaicSize : 0;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG1SC
   case 0x2107: {
-    bg1.r.screenSize    = data.bits(0,1);
-    bg1.r.screenAddress = data.bits(2,7) << 10;
+    bg1.io.screenSize    = data.bits(0,1);
+    bg1.io.screenAddress = data.bits(2,7) << 10;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG2SC
   case 0x2108: {
-    bg2.r.screenSize    = data.bits(0,1);
-    bg2.r.screenAddress = data.bits(2,7) << 10;
+    bg2.io.screenSize    = data.bits(0,1);
+    bg2.io.screenAddress = data.bits(2,7) << 10;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG3SC
   case 0x2109: {
-    bg3.r.screenSize    = data.bits(0,1);
-    bg3.r.screenAddress = data.bits(2,7) << 10;
+    bg3.io.screenSize    = data.bits(0,1);
+    bg3.io.screenAddress = data.bits(2,7) << 10;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG4SC
   case 0x210a: {
-    bg4.r.screenSize    = data.bits(0,1);
-    bg4.r.screenAddress = data.bits(2,7) << 10;
+    bg4.io.screenSize    = data.bits(0,1);
+    bg4.io.screenAddress = data.bits(2,7) << 10;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG12NBA
   case 0x210b: {
-    bg1.r.tiledataAddress = data.bits(0,3) << 12;
-    bg2.r.tiledataAddress = data.bits(4,7) << 12;
+    bg1.io.tiledataAddress = data.bits(0,3) << 12;
+    bg2.io.tiledataAddress = data.bits(4,7) << 12;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG34NBA
   case 0x210c: {
-    bg3.r.tiledataAddress = data.bits(0,3) << 12;
-    bg4.r.tiledataAddress = data.bits(4,7) << 12;
+    bg3.io.tiledataAddress = data.bits(0,3) << 12;
+    bg4.io.tiledataAddress = data.bits(4,7) << 12;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG1HOFS
   case 0x210d: {
-    r.hoffsetMode7 = (data << 8) | latch.mode7;
+    io.hoffsetMode7 = (data << 8) | latch.mode7;
     latch.mode7 = data;
 
-    bg1.r.hoffset = (data << 8) | (latch.bgofs & ~7) | ((bg1.r.hoffset >> 8) & 7);
+    bg1.io.hoffset = (data << 8) | (latch.bgofs & ~7) | ((bg1.io.hoffset >> 8) & 7);
     latch.bgofs = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG1VOFS
   case 0x210e: {
-    r.voffsetMode7 = (data << 8) | latch.mode7;
+    io.voffsetMode7 = (data << 8) | latch.mode7;
     latch.mode7 = data;
 
-    bg1.r.voffset = (data << 8) | latch.bgofs;
+    bg1.io.voffset = (data << 8) | latch.bgofs;
     latch.bgofs = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG2HOFS
   case 0x210f: {
-    bg2.r.hoffset = (data << 8) | (latch.bgofs & ~7) | ((bg2.r.hoffset >> 8) & 7);
+    bg2.io.hoffset = (data << 8) | (latch.bgofs & ~7) | ((bg2.io.hoffset >> 8) & 7);
     latch.bgofs = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG2VOFS
   case 0x2110: {
-    bg2.r.voffset = (data << 8) | latch.bgofs;
+    bg2.io.voffset = (data << 8) | latch.bgofs;
     latch.bgofs = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG3HOFS
   case 0x2111: {
-    bg3.r.hoffset = (data << 8) | (latch.bgofs & ~7) | ((bg3.r.hoffset >> 8) & 7);
+    bg3.io.hoffset = (data << 8) | (latch.bgofs & ~7) | ((bg3.io.hoffset >> 8) & 7);
     latch.bgofs = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG3VOFS
   case 0x2112: {
-    bg3.r.voffset = (data << 8) | latch.bgofs;
+    bg3.io.voffset = (data << 8) | latch.bgofs;
     latch.bgofs = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG4HOFS
   case 0x2113: {
-    bg4.r.hoffset = (data << 8) | (latch.bgofs & ~7) | ((bg4.r.hoffset >> 8) & 7);
+    bg4.io.hoffset = (data << 8) | (latch.bgofs & ~7) | ((bg4.io.hoffset >> 8) & 7);
     latch.bgofs = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //BG4VOFS
   case 0x2114: {
-    bg4.r.voffset = (data << 8) | latch.bgofs;
+    bg4.io.voffset = (data << 8) | latch.bgofs;
     latch.bgofs = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //VMAIN
   case 0x2115: {
-    r.vramIncrementMode = data & 0x80;
-    r.vramMapping = (data >> 2) & 3;
-    switch(data & 3) {
-    case 0: r.vramIncrementSize =   1; break;
-    case 1: r.vramIncrementSize =  32; break;
-    case 2: r.vramIncrementSize = 128; break;
-    case 3: r.vramIncrementSize = 128; break;
-    }
+    static const uint size[4] = {1, 32, 128, 128};
+    io.vramIncrementSize = size[data.bits(0,1)];
+    io.vramMapping       = data.bits(2,3);
+    io.vramIncrementMode = data.bit (7);
     return;
   }
 
   //VMADDL
   case 0x2116: {
-    r.vramAddress.byte(0) = data;
+    io.vramAddress.byte(0) = data;
     latch.vram = vramAccessible() ? vram[getVramAddress()] : (uint16)0;
     return;
   }
 
   //VMADDH
   case 0x2117: {
-    r.vramAddress.byte(1) = data;
+    io.vramAddress.byte(1) = data;
     latch.vram = vramAccessible() ? vram[getVramAddress()] : (uint16)0;
     return;
   }
@@ -372,247 +367,247 @@ auto PPU::writeIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
   //VMDATAL
   case 0x2118: {
     if(vramAccessible()) vram[getVramAddress()].byte(0) = data;
-    if(r.vramIncrementMode == 0) r.vramAddress += r.vramIncrementSize;
+    if(io.vramIncrementMode == 0) io.vramAddress += io.vramIncrementSize;
     return;
   }
 
   //VMDATAH
   case 0x2119: {
     if(vramAccessible()) vram[getVramAddress()].byte(1) = data;
-    if(r.vramIncrementMode == 1) r.vramAddress += r.vramIncrementSize;
+    if(io.vramIncrementMode == 1) io.vramAddress += io.vramIncrementSize;
     return;
   }
 
   //M7SEL
   case 0x211a: {
-    r.hflipMode7  = data.bit (0);
-    r.vflipMode7  = data.bit (1);
-    r.repeatMode7 = data.bits(6,7);
+    io.hflipMode7  = data.bit (0);
+    io.vflipMode7  = data.bit (1);
+    io.repeatMode7 = data.bits(6,7);
     return;
   }
 
   //M7A
   case 0x211b: {
-    r.m7a = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
+    io.m7a = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
     latch.mode7 = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //M7B
   case 0x211c: {
-    r.m7b = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
+    io.m7b = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
     latch.mode7 = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //M7C
   case 0x211d: {
-    r.m7c = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
+    io.m7c = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
     latch.mode7 = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //M7D
   case 0x211e: {
-    r.m7d = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
+    io.m7d = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
     latch.mode7 = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //M7X
   case 0x211f: {
-    r.m7x = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
+    io.m7x = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
     latch.mode7 = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //M7Y
   case 0x2120: {
-    r.m7y = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
+    io.m7y = data << 8 | latch.mode7;
     latch.mode7 = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //CGADD
   case 0x2121: {
-    r.cgramAddress = data;
-    r.cgramAddressLatch = 0;
+    io.cgramAddress = data;
+    io.cgramAddressLatch = 0;
     return;
   }
 
   //CGDATA
   case 0x2122: {
-    auto address = r.cgramAddress;
-    if(!r.displayDisable
+    auto address = io.cgramAddress;
+    if(!io.displayDisable
     && vcounter() > 0 && vcounter() < vdisp()
     && hcounter() >= 88 && hcounter() < 1096
     ) address = latch.cgramAddress;
 
-    if(r.cgramAddressLatch++ == 0) {
+    if(io.cgramAddressLatch++ == 0) {
       latch.cgram = data;
     } else {
-      cgram[address] = data.bits(0,6) << 8 | latch.cgram;
-      r.cgramAddress++;
+      screen.cgram[address] = data.bits(0,6) << 8 | latch.cgram;
+      io.cgramAddress++;
     }
     return;
   }
 
   //W12SEL
   case 0x2123: {
-    window.r.bg1.oneInvert = data.bit(0);
-    window.r.bg1.oneEnable = data.bit(1);
-    window.r.bg1.twoInvert = data.bit(2);
-    window.r.bg1.twoEnable = data.bit(3);
-    window.r.bg2.oneInvert = data.bit(4);
-    window.r.bg2.oneEnable = data.bit(5);
-    window.r.bg2.twoInvert = data.bit(6);
-    window.r.bg2.twoEnable = data.bit(7);
+    window.io.bg1.oneInvert = data.bit(0);
+    window.io.bg1.oneEnable = data.bit(1);
+    window.io.bg1.twoInvert = data.bit(2);
+    window.io.bg1.twoEnable = data.bit(3);
+    window.io.bg2.oneInvert = data.bit(4);
+    window.io.bg2.oneEnable = data.bit(5);
+    window.io.bg2.twoInvert = data.bit(6);
+    window.io.bg2.twoEnable = data.bit(7);
     return;
   }
 
   //W34SEL
   case 0x2124: {
-    window.r.bg3.oneInvert = data.bit(0);
-    window.r.bg3.oneEnable = data.bit(1);
-    window.r.bg3.twoInvert = data.bit(2);
-    window.r.bg3.twoEnable = data.bit(3);
-    window.r.bg4.oneInvert = data.bit(4);
-    window.r.bg4.oneEnable = data.bit(5);
-    window.r.bg4.twoInvert = data.bit(6);
-    window.r.bg4.twoEnable = data.bit(7);
+    window.io.bg3.oneInvert = data.bit(0);
+    window.io.bg3.oneEnable = data.bit(1);
+    window.io.bg3.twoInvert = data.bit(2);
+    window.io.bg3.twoEnable = data.bit(3);
+    window.io.bg4.oneInvert = data.bit(4);
+    window.io.bg4.oneEnable = data.bit(5);
+    window.io.bg4.twoInvert = data.bit(6);
+    window.io.bg4.twoEnable = data.bit(7);
     return;
   }
 
   //WOBJSEL
   case 0x2125: {
-    window.r.obj.oneInvert = data.bit(0);
-    window.r.obj.oneEnable = data.bit(1);
-    window.r.obj.twoInvert = data.bit(2);
-    window.r.obj.twoEnable = data.bit(3);
-    window.r.col.oneInvert = data.bit(4);
-    window.r.col.oneEnable = data.bit(5);
-    window.r.col.twoInvert = data.bit(6);
-    window.r.col.twoEnable = data.bit(7);
+    window.io.obj.oneInvert = data.bit(0);
+    window.io.obj.oneEnable = data.bit(1);
+    window.io.obj.twoInvert = data.bit(2);
+    window.io.obj.twoEnable = data.bit(3);
+    window.io.col.oneInvert = data.bit(4);
+    window.io.col.oneEnable = data.bit(5);
+    window.io.col.twoInvert = data.bit(6);
+    window.io.col.twoEnable = data.bit(7);
     return;
   }
 
   //WH0
   case 0x2126: {
-    window.r.oneLeft = data;
+    window.io.oneLeft = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //WH1
   case 0x2127: {
-    window.r.oneRight = data;
+    window.io.oneRight = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //WH2
   case 0x2128: {
-    window.r.twoLeft = data;
+    window.io.twoLeft = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //WH3
   case 0x2129: {
-    window.r.twoRight = data;
+    window.io.twoRight = data;
     return;
   }
 
   //WBGLOG
   case 0x212a: {
-    window.r.bg1.mask = data.bits(0,1);
-    window.r.bg2.mask = data.bits(2,3);
-    window.r.bg3.mask = data.bits(4,5);
-    window.r.bg4.mask = data.bits(6,7);
+    window.io.bg1.mask = data.bits(0,1);
+    window.io.bg2.mask = data.bits(2,3);
+    window.io.bg3.mask = data.bits(4,5);
+    window.io.bg4.mask = data.bits(6,7);
     return;
   }
 
   //WOBJLOG
   case 0x212b: {
-    window.r.obj.mask = data.bits(0,1);
-    window.r.col.mask = data.bits(2,3);
+    window.io.obj.mask = data.bits(0,1);
+    window.io.col.mask = data.bits(2,3);
     return;
   }
 
   //TM
   case 0x212c: {
-    bg1.r.aboveEnable = data.bit(0);
-    bg2.r.aboveEnable = data.bit(1);
-    bg3.r.aboveEnable = data.bit(2);
-    bg4.r.aboveEnable = data.bit(3);
-    obj.r.aboveEnable = data.bit(4);
+    bg1.io.aboveEnable = data.bit(0);
+    bg2.io.aboveEnable = data.bit(1);
+    bg3.io.aboveEnable = data.bit(2);
+    bg4.io.aboveEnable = data.bit(3);
+    obj.io.aboveEnable = data.bit(4);
     return;
   }
 
   //TS
   case 0x212d: {
-    bg1.r.belowEnable = data.bit(0);
-    bg2.r.belowEnable = data.bit(1);
-    bg3.r.belowEnable = data.bit(2);
-    bg4.r.belowEnable = data.bit(3);
-    obj.r.belowEnable = data.bit(4);
+    bg1.io.belowEnable = data.bit(0);
+    bg2.io.belowEnable = data.bit(1);
+    bg3.io.belowEnable = data.bit(2);
+    bg4.io.belowEnable = data.bit(3);
+    obj.io.belowEnable = data.bit(4);
     return;
   }
 
   //TMW
   case 0x212e: {
-    window.r.bg1.aboveEnable = data.bit(0);
-    window.r.bg2.aboveEnable = data.bit(1);
-    window.r.bg3.aboveEnable = data.bit(2);
-    window.r.bg4.aboveEnable = data.bit(3);
-    window.r.obj.aboveEnable = data.bit(4);
+    window.io.bg1.aboveEnable = data.bit(0);
+    window.io.bg2.aboveEnable = data.bit(1);
+    window.io.bg3.aboveEnable = data.bit(2);
+    window.io.bg4.aboveEnable = data.bit(3);
+    window.io.obj.aboveEnable = data.bit(4);
     return;
   }
 
   //TSW
   case 0x212f: {
-    window.r.bg1.belowEnable = data.bit(0);
-    window.r.bg2.belowEnable = data.bit(1);
-    window.r.bg3.belowEnable = data.bit(2);
-    window.r.bg4.belowEnable = data.bit(3);
-    window.r.obj.belowEnable = data.bit(4);
+    window.io.bg1.belowEnable = data.bit(0);
+    window.io.bg2.belowEnable = data.bit(1);
+    window.io.bg3.belowEnable = data.bit(2);
+    window.io.bg4.belowEnable = data.bit(3);
+    window.io.obj.belowEnable = data.bit(4);
     return;
   }
 
   //CGWSEL
   case 0x2130: {
-    screen.r.directColor   = data.bit (0);
-    screen.r.blendMode     = data.bit (1);
-    window.r.col.belowMask = data.bits(4,5);
-    window.r.col.aboveMask = data.bits(6,7);
+    screen.io.directColor   = data.bit (0);
+    screen.io.blendMode     = data.bit (1);
+    window.io.col.belowMask = data.bits(4,5);
+    window.io.col.aboveMask = data.bits(6,7);
     return;
   }
 
   //CGADDSUB
   case 0x2131: {
-    screen.r.bg1.colorEnable  = data.bit(0);
-    screen.r.bg2.colorEnable  = data.bit(1);
-    screen.r.bg3.colorEnable  = data.bit(2);
-    screen.r.bg4.colorEnable  = data.bit(3);
-    screen.r.obj.colorEnable  = data.bit(4);
-    screen.r.back.colorEnable = data.bit(5);
-    screen.r.colorHalve       = data.bit(6);
-    screen.r.colorMode        = data.bit(7);
+    screen.io.bg1.colorEnable  = data.bit(0);
+    screen.io.bg2.colorEnable  = data.bit(1);
+    screen.io.bg3.colorEnable  = data.bit(2);
+    screen.io.bg4.colorEnable  = data.bit(3);
+    screen.io.obj.colorEnable  = data.bit(4);
+    screen.io.back.colorEnable = data.bit(5);
+    screen.io.colorHalve       = data.bit(6);
+    screen.io.colorMode        = data.bit(7);
     return;
   }
 
   //COLDATA
   case 0x2132: {
-    if(data.bit(5)) screen.r.colorRed   = data.bits(0,4);
-    if(data.bit(6)) screen.r.colorGreen = data.bits(0,4);
-    if(data.bit(7)) screen.r.colorBlue  = data.bits(0,4);
+    if(data.bit(5)) screen.io.colorRed   = data.bits(0,4);
+    if(data.bit(6)) screen.io.colorGreen = data.bits(0,4);
+    if(data.bit(7)) screen.io.colorBlue  = data.bits(0,4);
     return;
   }
 
   //SETINI
   case 0x2133: {
-    r.interlace     = data.bit(0);
-    obj.r.interlace = data.bit(1);
-    r.overscan      = data.bit(2);
-    r.pseudoHires   = data.bit(3);
-    r.extbg         = data.bit(6);
+    io.interlace     = data.bit(0);
+    obj.io.interlace = data.bit(1);
+    io.overscan      = data.bit(2);
+    io.pseudoHires   = data.bit(3);
+    io.extbg         = data.bit(6);
     updateVideoMode();
     return;
   }
@@ -622,108 +617,108 @@ auto PPU::writeIO(uint24 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
 
 auto PPU::latchCounters() -> void {
   cpu.synchronizePPU();
-  r.hcounter = hdot();
-  r.vcounter = vcounter();
+  io.hcounter = hdot();
+  io.vcounter = vcounter();
   latch.counters = true;
 }
 
 auto PPU::updateVideoMode() -> void {
-  switch(r.bgMode) {
+  switch(io.bgMode) {
   case 0:
-    bg1.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
-    bg2.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
-    bg3.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
-    bg4.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
-    memory::assign(bg1.r.priority, 8, 11);
-    memory::assign(bg2.r.priority, 7, 10);
-    memory::assign(bg3.r.priority, 2,  5);
-    memory::assign(bg4.r.priority, 1,  4);
-    memory::assign(obj.r.priority, 3,  6, 9, 12);
+    bg1.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
+    bg2.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
+    bg3.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
+    bg4.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
+    memory::assign(bg1.io.priority, 8, 11);
+    memory::assign(bg2.io.priority, 7, 10);
+    memory::assign(bg3.io.priority, 2,  5);
+    memory::assign(bg4.io.priority, 1,  4);
+    memory::assign(obj.io.priority, 3,  6, 9, 12);
     break;
 
   case 1:
-    bg1.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
-    bg2.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
-    bg3.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
-    bg4.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    if(r.bgPriority) {
-      memory::assign(bg1.r.priority, 5,  8);
-      memory::assign(bg2.r.priority, 4,  7);
-      memory::assign(bg3.r.priority, 1, 10);
-      memory::assign(obj.r.priority, 2,  3, 6, 9);
+    bg1.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
+    bg2.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
+    bg3.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
+    bg4.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    if(io.bgPriority) {
+      memory::assign(bg1.io.priority, 5,  8);
+      memory::assign(bg2.io.priority, 4,  7);
+      memory::assign(bg3.io.priority, 1, 10);
+      memory::assign(obj.io.priority, 2,  3, 6, 9);
     } else {
-      memory::assign(bg1.r.priority, 6,  9);
-      memory::assign(bg2.r.priority, 5,  8);
-      memory::assign(bg3.r.priority, 1,  3);
-      memory::assign(obj.r.priority, 2,  4, 7, 10);
+      memory::assign(bg1.io.priority, 6,  9);
+      memory::assign(bg2.io.priority, 5,  8);
+      memory::assign(bg3.io.priority, 1,  3);
+      memory::assign(obj.io.priority, 2,  4, 7, 10);
     }
     break;
 
   case 2:
-    bg1.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
-    bg2.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
-    bg3.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    bg4.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    memory::assign(bg1.r.priority, 3, 7);
-    memory::assign(bg2.r.priority, 1, 5);
-    memory::assign(obj.r.priority, 2, 4, 6, 8);
+    bg1.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
+    bg2.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
+    bg3.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    bg4.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    memory::assign(bg1.io.priority, 3, 7);
+    memory::assign(bg2.io.priority, 1, 5);
+    memory::assign(obj.io.priority, 2, 4, 6, 8);
     break;
 
   case 3:
-    bg1.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP8;
-    bg2.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
-    bg3.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    bg4.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    memory::assign(bg1.r.priority, 3, 7);
-    memory::assign(bg2.r.priority, 1, 5);
-    memory::assign(obj.r.priority, 2, 4, 6, 8);
+    bg1.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP8;
+    bg2.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
+    bg3.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    bg4.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    memory::assign(bg1.io.priority, 3, 7);
+    memory::assign(bg2.io.priority, 1, 5);
+    memory::assign(obj.io.priority, 2, 4, 6, 8);
     break;
 
   case 4:
-    bg1.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP8;
-    bg2.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
-    bg3.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    bg4.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    memory::assign(bg1.r.priority, 3, 7);
-    memory::assign(bg2.r.priority, 1, 5);
-    memory::assign(obj.r.priority, 2, 4, 6, 8);
+    bg1.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP8;
+    bg2.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
+    bg3.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    bg4.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    memory::assign(bg1.io.priority, 3, 7);
+    memory::assign(bg2.io.priority, 1, 5);
+    memory::assign(obj.io.priority, 2, 4, 6, 8);
     break;
 
   case 5:
-    bg1.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
-    bg2.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
-    bg3.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    bg4.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    memory::assign(bg1.r.priority, 3, 7);
-    memory::assign(bg2.r.priority, 1, 5);
-    memory::assign(obj.r.priority, 2, 4, 6, 8);
+    bg1.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
+    bg2.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP2;
+    bg3.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    bg4.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    memory::assign(bg1.io.priority, 3, 7);
+    memory::assign(bg2.io.priority, 1, 5);
+    memory::assign(obj.io.priority, 2, 4, 6, 8);
     break;
 
   case 6:
-    bg1.r.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
-    bg2.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    bg3.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    bg4.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-    memory::assign(bg1.r.priority, 2, 5);
-    memory::assign(obj.r.priority, 1, 3, 4, 6);
+    bg1.io.mode = Background::Mode::BPP4;
+    bg2.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    bg3.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    bg4.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+    memory::assign(bg1.io.priority, 2, 5);
+    memory::assign(obj.io.priority, 1, 3, 4, 6);
     break;
 
   case 7:
-    if(!r.extbg) {
-      bg1.r.mode = Background::Mode::Mode7;
-      bg2.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-      bg3.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-      bg4.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-      memory::assign(bg1.r.priority, 2);
-      memory::assign(obj.r.priority, 1, 3, 4, 5);
+    if(!io.extbg) {
+      bg1.io.mode = Background::Mode::Mode7;
+      bg2.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+      bg3.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+      bg4.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+      memory::assign(bg1.io.priority, 2);
+      memory::assign(obj.io.priority, 1, 3, 4, 5);
     } else {
-      bg1.r.mode = Background::Mode::Mode7;
-      bg2.r.mode = Background::Mode::Mode7;
-      bg3.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-      bg4.r.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
-      memory::assign(bg1.r.priority, 3);
-      memory::assign(bg2.r.priority, 1, 5);
-      memory::assign(obj.r.priority, 2, 4, 6, 7);
+      bg1.io.mode = Background::Mode::Mode7;
+      bg2.io.mode = Background::Mode::Mode7;
+      bg3.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+      bg4.io.mode = Background::Mode::Inactive;
+      memory::assign(bg1.io.priority, 3);
+      memory::assign(bg2.io.priority, 1, 5);
+      memory::assign(obj.io.priority, 2, 4, 6, 7);
     }
     break;
   }
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/object/list.cpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/object/list.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index b12b10ee..00000000
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/object/list.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,54 +0,0 @@
-auto PPU::Object::update(uint10 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
-  if(!addr.bit(9)) {
-    uint n = addr >> 2;  //sprite#
-    addr &= 3;
-    if(addr == 0) {
-      list[n].x.bits(0,7) = data;
-    } else if(addr == 1) {
-      list[n].y = data;
-    } else if(addr == 2) {
-      list[n].character = data;
-    } else {  //(addr == 3)
-      list[n].nameSelect = data.bit (0);
-      list[n].palette    = data.bits(1,3);
-      list[n].priority   = data.bits(4,5);
-      list[n].hflip      = data.bit (6);
-      list[n].vflip      = data.bit (7);
-    }
-  } else {
-    uint n = (addr & 0x1f) << 2;  //sprite#
-    list[n + 0].x.bit(8) = data.bit(0);
-    list[n + 0].size     = data.bit(1);
-    list[n + 1].x.bit(8) = data.bit(2);
-    list[n + 1].size     = data.bit(3);
-    list[n + 2].x.bit(8) = data.bit(4);
-    list[n + 2].size     = data.bit(5);
-    list[n + 3].x.bit(8) = data.bit(6);
-    list[n + 3].size     = data.bit(7);
-  }
-}
-
-auto PPU::Object::synchronize() -> void {
-  for(auto n : range(544)) update(n, ppu.oam[n]);
-}
-
-auto PPU::Object::Sprite::width() const -> uint{
-  if(size == 0) {
-    static const uint width[] = { 8,  8,  8, 16, 16, 32, 16, 16};
-    return width[ppu.obj.r.baseSize];
-  } else {
-    static const uint width[] = {16, 32, 64, 32, 64, 64, 32, 32};
-    return width[ppu.obj.r.baseSize];
-  }
-}
-
-auto PPU::Object::Sprite::height() const -> uint {
-  if(size == 0) {
-    if(ppu.obj.r.interlace && ppu.obj.r.baseSize >= 6) return 16;  //hardware quirk
-    static const uint height[] = { 8,  8,  8, 16, 16, 32, 32, 32};
-    return height[ppu.obj.r.baseSize];
-  } else {
-    static const uint height[] = {16, 32, 64, 32, 64, 64, 64, 32};
-    return height[ppu.obj.r.baseSize];
-  }
-}
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/object/oam.cpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/object/oam.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..c3e537b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/object/oam.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+auto PPU::OAM::read(uint10 addr) -> uint8 {
+  if(!addr.bit(9)) {
+    uint n = addr >> 2;  //object#
+    addr &= 3;
+    if(addr == 0) return object[n].x.bits(0,7);
+    if(addr == 1) return object[n].y;
+    if(addr == 2) return object[n].character;
+    return (
+      object[n].nameselect << 0
+    | object[n].palette    << 1
+    | object[n].priority   << 4
+    | object[n].hflip      << 6
+    | object[n].vflip      << 7
+    );
+  } else {
+    uint n = (addr & 0x1f) << 2;  //object#
+    return (
+      object[n + 0].x.bit(8) << 0
+    | object[n + 0].size     << 1
+    | object[n + 1].x.bit(8) << 2
+    | object[n + 1].size     << 3
+    | object[n + 2].x.bit(8) << 4
+    | object[n + 2].size     << 5
+    | object[n + 3].x.bit(8) << 6
+    | object[n + 3].size     << 7
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+auto PPU::OAM::write(uint10 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
+  if(!addr.bit(9)) {
+    uint n = addr >> 2;  //object#
+    addr &= 3;
+    if(addr == 0) { object[n].x.bits(0,7) = data; return; }
+    if(addr == 1) { object[n].y = data; return; }
+    if(addr == 2) { object[n].character = data; return; }
+    object[n].nameselect = data.bit (0);
+    object[n].palette    = data.bits(1,3);
+    object[n].priority   = data.bits(4,5);
+    object[n].hflip      = data.bit (6);
+    object[n].vflip      = data.bit (7);
+  } else {
+    uint n = (addr & 0x1f) << 2;  //object#
+    object[n + 0].x.bit(8) = data.bit(0);
+    object[n + 0].size     = data.bit(1);
+    object[n + 1].x.bit(8) = data.bit(2);
+    object[n + 1].size     = data.bit(3);
+    object[n + 2].x.bit(8) = data.bit(4);
+    object[n + 2].size     = data.bit(5);
+    object[n + 3].x.bit(8) = data.bit(6);
+    object[n + 3].size     = data.bit(7);
+  }
+}
+
+auto PPU::OAM::Object::width() const -> uint {
+  if(size == 0) {
+    static const uint width[] = { 8,  8,  8, 16, 16, 32, 16, 16};
+    return width[ppu.obj.io.baseSize];
+  } else {
+    static const uint width[] = {16, 32, 64, 32, 64, 64, 32, 32};
+    return width[ppu.obj.io.baseSize];
+  }
+}
+
+auto PPU::OAM::Object::height() const -> uint {
+  if(size == 0) {
+    if(ppu.obj.io.interlace && ppu.obj.io.baseSize >= 6) return 16;  //hardware quirk
+    static const uint height[] = { 8,  8,  8, 16, 16, 32, 32, 32};
+    return height[ppu.obj.io.baseSize];
+  } else {
+    static const uint height[] = {16, 32, 64, 32, 64, 64, 64, 32};
+    return height[ppu.obj.io.baseSize];
+  }
+}
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/object/object.cpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/object/object.cpp
index 0698b529..39ae9b58 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/object/object.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/object/object.cpp
@@ -1,17 +1,17 @@
-#include "list.cpp"
+#include "oam.cpp"
 
 auto PPU::Object::addressReset() -> void {
-  ppu.r.oamAddress = ppu.r.oamBaseAddress;
+  ppu.io.oamAddress = ppu.io.oamBaseAddress;
   setFirstSprite();
 }
 
 auto PPU::Object::setFirstSprite() -> void {
-  r.firstSprite = !ppu.r.oamPriority ? 0 : ppu.r.oamAddress >> 2;
+  io.firstSprite = !ppu.io.oamPriority ? 0 : ppu.io.oamAddress >> 2;
 }
 
 auto PPU::Object::frame() -> void {
-  r.timeOver = false;
-  r.rangeOver = false;
+  io.timeOver = false;
+  io.rangeOver = false;
 }
 
 auto PPU::Object::scanline() -> void {
@@ -25,15 +25,15 @@ auto PPU::Object::scanline() -> void {
   auto oamItem = t.item[t.active];
   auto oamTile = t.tile[t.active];
 
-  if(t.y == ppu.vdisp() && !ppu.r.displayDisable) addressReset();
+  if(t.y == ppu.vdisp() && !ppu.io.displayDisable) addressReset();
   if(t.y >= ppu.vdisp() - 1) return;
 
   for(auto n : range(32)) oamItem[n].valid = false;  //default to invalid
   for(auto n : range(34)) oamTile[n].valid = false;  //default to invalid
 
   for(auto n : range(128)) {
-    uint7 sprite = r.firstSprite + n;
-    if(!onScanline(list[sprite])) continue;
+    uint7 sprite = io.firstSprite + n;
+    if(!onScanline(oam.object[sprite])) continue;
     if(t.itemCount++ >= 32) break;
     oamItem[t.itemCount - 1] = {true, sprite};
   }
@@ -43,9 +43,9 @@ auto PPU::Object::scanline() -> void {
   }
 }
 
-auto PPU::Object::onScanline(Sprite& sprite) -> bool {
+auto PPU::Object::onScanline(PPU::OAM::Object& sprite) -> bool {
   if(sprite.x > 256 && (sprite.x + sprite.width() - 1) < 512) return false;
-  int height = sprite.height() >> r.interlace;
+  int height = sprite.height() >> io.interlace;
   if(t.y >= sprite.y && t.y < (sprite.y + height)) return true;
   if((sprite.y + height) >= 256 && t.y < ((sprite.y + height) & 255)) return true;
   return false;
@@ -72,14 +72,14 @@ auto PPU::Object::run() -> void {
     color += tile.data >> (shift + 21) & 8;
 
     if(color) {
-      if(r.aboveEnable) {
+      if(io.aboveEnable) {
         output.above.palette = tile.palette + color;
-        output.above.priority = r.priority[tile.priority];
+        output.above.priority = io.priority[tile.priority];
       }
 
-      if(r.belowEnable) {
+      if(io.belowEnable) {
         output.below.palette = tile.palette + color;
-        output.below.priority = r.priority[tile.priority];
+        output.below.priority = io.priority[tile.priority];
       }
     }
   }
@@ -91,12 +91,12 @@ auto PPU::Object::tilefetch() -> void {
 
   for(int i = 31; i >= 0; i--) {
     if(!oamItem[i].valid) continue;
-    const auto& sprite = list[oamItem[i].index];
+    const auto& sprite = oam.object[oamItem[i].index];
 
     uint tileWidth = sprite.width() >> 3;
     int x = sprite.x;
     int y = (t.y - sprite.y) & 0xff;
-    if(r.interlace) y <<= 1;
+    if(io.interlace) y <<= 1;
 
     if(sprite.vflip) {
       if(sprite.width() == sprite.height()) {
@@ -108,18 +108,18 @@ auto PPU::Object::tilefetch() -> void {
       }
     }
 
-    if(r.interlace) {
+    if(io.interlace) {
       y = !sprite.vflip ? y + ppu.field() : y - ppu.field();
     }
 
     x &= 511;
     y &= 255;
 
-    uint16 tiledataAddress = r.tiledataAddress;
+    uint16 tiledataAddress = io.tiledataAddress;
     uint16 chrx = (sprite.character >> 0) & 15;
     uint16 chry = (sprite.character >> 4) & 15;
-    if(sprite.nameSelect) {
-      tiledataAddress += (256 * 16) + (r.nameSelect << 12);
+    if(sprite.nameselect) {
+      tiledataAddress += (256 * 16) + (io.nameselect << 12);
     }
     chry  += (y >> 3);
     chry  &= 15;
@@ -142,31 +142,30 @@ auto PPU::Object::tilefetch() -> void {
       uint16 addr = (pos & 0xfff0) + (y & 7);
 
       oamTile[n].data.bits( 0,15) = ppu.vram[addr + 0];
-      ppu.addClocks(2);
+      ppu.step(2);
 
       oamTile[n].data.bits(16,31) = ppu.vram[addr + 8];
-      ppu.addClocks(2);
+      ppu.step(2);
     }
   }
 
-  if(t.tileCount < 34) ppu.addClocks((34 - t.tileCount) * 4);
-  r.timeOver  |= (t.tileCount > 34);
-  r.rangeOver |= (t.itemCount > 32);
+  if(t.tileCount < 34) ppu.step((34 - t.tileCount) * 4);
+  io.timeOver  |= (t.tileCount > 34);
+  io.rangeOver |= (t.itemCount > 32);
 }
 
 auto PPU::Object::reset() -> void {
-  for(auto n : range(128)) {
-    list[n].x = 0;
-    list[n].y = 0;
-    list[n].character = 0;
-    list[n].nameSelect = 0;
-    list[n].vflip = 0;
-    list[n].hflip = 0;
-    list[n].priority = 0;
-    list[n].palette = 0;
-    list[n].size = 0;
+  for(auto& object : oam.object) {
+    object.x = 0;
+    object.y = 0;
+    object.character = 0;
+    object.nameselect = 0;
+    object.vflip = 0;
+    object.hflip = 0;
+    object.priority = 0;
+    object.palette = 0;
+    object.size = 0;
   }
-  synchronize();
 
   t.x = 0;
   t.y = 0;
@@ -190,19 +189,19 @@ auto PPU::Object::reset() -> void {
     }
   }
 
-  r.aboveEnable = random(false);
-  r.belowEnable = random(false);
-  r.interlace = random(false);
+  io.aboveEnable = random(false);
+  io.belowEnable = random(false);
+  io.interlace = random(false);
 
-  r.baseSize = random(0);
-  r.nameSelect = random(0);
-  r.tiledataAddress = (random(0x0000) & 3) << 13;
-  r.firstSprite = 0;
+  io.baseSize = random(0);
+  io.nameselect = random(0);
+  io.tiledataAddress = (random(0x0000) & 7) << 13;
+  io.firstSprite = 0;
 
-  for(auto& p : r.priority) p = 0;
+  for(auto& p : io.priority) p = 0;
 
-  r.timeOver = false;
-  r.rangeOver = false;
+  io.timeOver = false;
+  io.rangeOver = false;
 
   output.above.palette = 0;
   output.above.priority = 0;
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/object/object.hpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/object/object.hpp
index 8cdbf36d..66242a6f 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/object/object.hpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/object/object.hpp
@@ -1,3 +1,23 @@
+struct OAM {
+  auto read(uint10 addr) -> uint8;
+  auto write(uint10 addr, uint8 data) -> void;
+
+  struct Object {
+    alwaysinline auto width() const -> uint;
+    alwaysinline auto height() const -> uint;
+
+    uint9 x;
+    uint8 y;
+    uint8 character;
+    uint1 nameselect;
+    uint1 vflip;
+    uint1 hflip;
+    uint2 priority;
+    uint3 palette;
+    uint1 size;
+  } object[128];
+};
+
 struct Object {
   alwaysinline auto addressReset() -> void;
   alwaysinline auto setFirstSprite() -> void;
@@ -7,22 +27,19 @@ struct Object {
   auto tilefetch() -> void;
   auto reset() -> void;
 
-  struct Sprite;
-  auto onScanline(Sprite&) -> bool;
-
-  //list.cpp
-  auto update(uint10 addr, uint8 data) -> void;
-  auto synchronize() -> void;
+  auto onScanline(PPU::OAM::Object&) -> bool;
 
   auto serialize(serializer&) -> void;
 
-  struct Registers {
+  OAM oam;
+
+  struct IO {
     bool aboveEnable;
     bool belowEnable;
     bool interlace;
 
     uint3  baseSize;
-    uint2  nameSelect;
+    uint2  nameselect;
     uint16 tiledataAddress;
     uint7  firstSprite;
 
@@ -30,7 +47,7 @@ struct Object {
 
     bool timeOver;
     bool rangeOver;
-  } r;
+  } io;
 
   struct Item {
     bool  valid;
@@ -65,20 +82,5 @@ struct Object {
     } above, below;
   } output;
 
-  struct Sprite {
-    alwaysinline auto width() const -> uint;
-    alwaysinline auto height() const -> uint;
-
-    uint9 x;
-    uint8 y;
-    uint8 character;
-    uint1 nameSelect;
-    uint1 vflip;
-    uint1 hflip;
-    uint2 priority;
-    uint3 palette;
-    uint1 size;
-  } list[128];
-
   friend class PPU;
 };
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/ppu.cpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/ppu.cpp
index 9e73badd..41a94aaa 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/ppu.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/ppu.cpp
@@ -29,7 +29,12 @@ PPU::~PPU() {
 }
 
 auto PPU::step(uint clocks) -> void {
-  clock += clocks;
+  clocks >>= 1;
+  while(clocks--) {
+    tick(2);
+    clock += 2;
+    synchronizeCPU();
+  }
 }
 
 auto PPU::synchronizeCPU() -> void {
@@ -42,7 +47,7 @@ auto PPU::Enter() -> void {
 
 auto PPU::main() -> void {
   scanline();
-  addClocks(28);
+  step(28);
   bg1.begin();
   bg2.begin();
   bg3.begin();
@@ -54,7 +59,7 @@ auto PPU::main() -> void {
       bg2.run(1);
       bg3.run(1);
       bg4.run(1);
-      addClocks(2);
+      step(2);
 
       bg1.run(0);
       bg2.run(0);
@@ -65,25 +70,16 @@ auto PPU::main() -> void {
         window.run();
         screen.run();
       }
-      addClocks(2);
+      step(2);
     }
 
-    addClocks(14);
+    step(14);
     obj.tilefetch();
   } else {
-    addClocks(1052 + 14 + 136);
+    step(1052 + 14 + 136);
   }
 
-  addClocks(lineclocks() - 28 - 1052 - 14 - 136);
-}
-
-auto PPU::addClocks(uint clocks) -> void {
-  clocks >>= 1;
-  while(clocks--) {
-    tick(2);
-    step(2);
-    synchronizeCPU();
-  }
+  step(lineclocks() - 28 - 1052 - 14 - 136);
 }
 
 auto PPU::load(Markup::Node node) -> bool {
@@ -96,8 +92,6 @@ auto PPU::load(Markup::Node node) -> bool {
 
 auto PPU::power() -> void {
   for(auto& n : vram.data) n = random(0x0000);
-  for(auto& n : oam.data) n = random(0x00);
-  for(auto& n : cgram.data) n = random(0x0000);
 }
 
 auto PPU::reset() -> void {
@@ -125,72 +119,72 @@ auto PPU::reset() -> void {
   latch.cgramAddress = 0x00;
 
   //$2100  INIDISP
-  r.displayDisable = true;
-  r.displayBrightness = 0;
+  io.displayDisable = true;
+  io.displayBrightness = 0;
 
   //$2102  OAMADDL
   //$2103  OAMADDH
-  r.oamBaseAddress = random(0x0000);
-  r.oamAddress = random(0x0000);
-  r.oamPriority = random(false);
+  io.oamBaseAddress = random(0x0000);
+  io.oamAddress = random(0x0000);
+  io.oamPriority = random(false);
 
   //$2105  BGMODE
-  r.bgPriority = false;
-  r.bgMode = 0;
+  io.bgPriority = false;
+  io.bgMode = 0;
 
   //$210d  BG1HOFS
-  r.hoffsetMode7 = random(0x0000);
+  io.hoffsetMode7 = random(0x0000);
 
   //$210e  BG1VOFS
-  r.voffsetMode7 = random(0x0000);
+  io.voffsetMode7 = random(0x0000);
 
   //$2115  VMAIN
-  r.vramIncrementMode = random(1);
-  r.vramMapping = random(0);
-  r.vramIncrementSize = 1;
+  io.vramIncrementMode = random(1);
+  io.vramMapping = random(0);
+  io.vramIncrementSize = 1;
 
   //$2116  VMADDL
   //$2117  VMADDH
-  r.vramAddress = random(0x0000);
+  io.vramAddress = random(0x0000);
 
   //$211a  M7SEL
-  r.repeatMode7 = random(0);
-  r.vflipMode7 = random(false);
-  r.hflipMode7 = random(false);
+  io.repeatMode7 = random(0);
+  io.vflipMode7 = random(false);
+  io.hflipMode7 = random(false);
 
   //$211b  M7A
-  r.m7a = random(0x0000);
+  io.m7a = random(0x0000);
 
   //$211c  M7B
-  r.m7b = random(0x0000);
+  io.m7b = random(0x0000);
 
   //$211d  M7C
-  r.m7c = random(0x0000);
+  io.m7c = random(0x0000);
 
   //$211e  M7D
-  r.m7d = random(0x0000);
+  io.m7d = random(0x0000);
 
   //$211f  M7X
-  r.m7x = random(0x0000);
+  io.m7x = random(0x0000);
 
   //$2120  M7Y
-  r.m7y = random(0x0000);
+  io.m7y = random(0x0000);
 
   //$2121  CGADD
-  r.cgramAddress = random(0x00);
-  r.cgramAddressLatch = random(0);
+  io.cgramAddress = random(0x00);
+  io.cgramAddressLatch = random(0);
 
   //$2133  SETINI
-  r.extbg = random(false);
-  r.pseudoHires = random(false);
-  r.overscan = false;
-  r.interlace = false;
+  io.extbg = random(false);
+  io.pseudoHires = random(false);
+  io.overscan = false;
+  io.interlace = false;
 
   //$213c  OPHCT
-  r.hcounter = 0;
+  io.hcounter = 0;
 
   //$213d  OPVCT
-  r.vcounter = 0;
+  io.vcounter = 0;
 
   bg1.reset();
   bg2.reset();
@@ -227,8 +221,8 @@ auto PPU::scanline() -> void {
 
 auto PPU::frame() -> void {
   obj.frame();
-  display.interlace = r.interlace;
-  display.overscan = r.overscan;
+  display.interlace = io.interlace;
+  display.overscan = io.overscan;
 }
 
 auto PPU::refresh() -> void {
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/ppu.hpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/ppu.hpp
index 0ceae4ee..38a5bd90 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/ppu.hpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/ppu.hpp
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 struct PPU : Thread, PPUcounter {
   alwaysinline auto interlace() const -> bool { return display.interlace; }
   alwaysinline auto overscan() const -> bool { return display.overscan; }
-  alwaysinline auto vdisp() const -> uint { return r.overscan ? 240 : 225; }
+  alwaysinline auto vdisp() const -> uint { return io.overscan ? 240 : 225; }
 
   PPU();
   ~PPU();
@@ -33,16 +33,6 @@ privileged:
     uint mask = 0x7fff;
   } vram;
 
-  struct OAM {
-    auto& operator[](uint offset) { return data[offset]; }
-    uint8 data[544];
-  } oam;
-
-  struct CGRAM {
-    auto& operator[](uint8 offset) { return data[offset]; }
-    uint15 data[256];
-  } cgram;
-
   uint32* output = nullptr;
 
   struct {
@@ -50,8 +40,6 @@ privileged:
     bool overscan;
   } display;
 
-  alwaysinline auto addClocks(uint) -> void;
-
   auto scanline() -> void;
   auto frame() -> void;
   auto refresh() -> void;
@@ -75,7 +63,7 @@ privileged:
     uint8 cgramAddress;
   } latch;
 
-  struct Registers {
+  struct IO {
     //$2100  INIDISP
     bool displayDisable;
     uint4 displayBrightness;
@@ -143,7 +131,7 @@ privileged:
 
     //$213d  OPVCT
     uint16 vcounter;
-  } r;
+  } io;
 
   #include "background/background.hpp"
   #include "object/object.hpp"
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/screen/screen.cpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/screen/screen.cpp
index b19daff5..c04a6da6 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/screen/screen.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/screen/screen.cpp
@@ -8,32 +8,32 @@ auto PPU::Screen::scanline() -> void {
   math.above.color = paletteColor(0);
   math.below.color = math.above.color;
 
-  math.above.colorEnable = !(ppu.window.r.col.aboveMask & 1);
-  math.below.colorEnable = !(ppu.window.r.col.belowMask & 1) && r.back.colorEnable;
+  math.above.colorEnable = !(ppu.window.io.col.aboveMask & 1);
+  math.below.colorEnable = !(ppu.window.io.col.belowMask & 1) && io.back.colorEnable;
 
   math.transparent = true;
   math.blendMode   = false;
-  math.colorHalve  = r.colorHalve && !r.blendMode && math.above.colorEnable;
+  math.colorHalve  = io.colorHalve && !io.blendMode && math.above.colorEnable;
 }
 
 auto PPU::Screen::run() -> void {
   if(ppu.vcounter() == 0) return;
 
-  bool hires      = ppu.r.pseudoHires || ppu.r.bgMode == 5 || ppu.r.bgMode == 6;
+  bool hires      = ppu.io.pseudoHires || ppu.io.bgMode == 5 || ppu.io.bgMode == 6;
   auto belowColor = below(hires);
   auto aboveColor = above();
 
-  *lineA++ = *lineB++ = ppu.r.displayBrightness << 15 | (hires ? belowColor : aboveColor);
-  *lineA++ = *lineB++ = ppu.r.displayBrightness << 15 | (aboveColor);
+  *lineA++ = *lineB++ = ppu.io.displayBrightness << 15 | (hires ? belowColor : aboveColor);
+  *lineA++ = *lineB++ = ppu.io.displayBrightness << 15 | (aboveColor);
 }
 
 auto PPU::Screen::below(bool hires) -> uint16 {
-  if(ppu.r.displayDisable || (!ppu.r.overscan && ppu.vcounter() >= 225)) return 0;
+  if(ppu.io.displayDisable || (!ppu.io.overscan && ppu.vcounter() >= 225)) return 0;
 
   uint priority = 0;
   if(ppu.bg1.output.below.priority) {
     priority = ppu.bg1.output.below.priority;
-    if(r.directColor && (ppu.r.bgMode == 3 || ppu.r.bgMode == 4 || ppu.r.bgMode == 7)) {
+    if(io.directColor && (ppu.io.bgMode == 3 || ppu.io.bgMode == 4 || ppu.io.bgMode == 7)) {
       math.below.color = directColor(ppu.bg1.output.below.palette, ppu.bg1.output.below.tile);
     } else {
       math.below.color = paletteColor(ppu.bg1.output.below.palette);
@@ -67,53 +67,53 @@ auto PPU::Screen::below(bool hires) -> uint16 {
 }
 
 auto PPU::Screen::above() -> uint16 {
-  if(ppu.r.displayDisable || (!ppu.r.overscan && ppu.vcounter() >= 225)) return 0;
+  if(ppu.io.displayDisable || (!ppu.io.overscan && ppu.vcounter() >= 225)) return 0;
 
   uint priority = 0;
   if(ppu.bg1.output.above.priority) {
     priority = ppu.bg1.output.above.priority;
-    if(r.directColor && (ppu.r.bgMode == 3 || ppu.r.bgMode == 4 || ppu.r.bgMode == 7)) {
+    if(io.directColor && (ppu.io.bgMode == 3 || ppu.io.bgMode == 4 || ppu.io.bgMode == 7)) {
       math.above.color = directColor(ppu.bg1.output.above.palette, ppu.bg1.output.above.tile);
     } else {
       math.above.color = paletteColor(ppu.bg1.output.above.palette);
     }
-    math.below.colorEnable = r.bg1.colorEnable;
+    math.below.colorEnable = io.bg1.colorEnable;
   }
   if(ppu.bg2.output.above.priority > priority) {
     priority = ppu.bg2.output.above.priority;
     math.above.color = paletteColor(ppu.bg2.output.above.palette);
-    math.below.colorEnable = r.bg2.colorEnable;
+    math.below.colorEnable = io.bg2.colorEnable;
   }
   if(ppu.bg3.output.above.priority > priority) {
     priority = ppu.bg3.output.above.priority;
     math.above.color = paletteColor(ppu.bg3.output.above.palette);
-    math.below.colorEnable = r.bg3.colorEnable;
+    math.below.colorEnable = io.bg3.colorEnable;
   }
   if(ppu.bg4.output.above.priority > priority) {
     priority = ppu.bg4.output.above.priority;
     math.above.color = paletteColor(ppu.bg4.output.above.palette);
-    math.below.colorEnable = r.bg4.colorEnable;
+    math.below.colorEnable = io.bg4.colorEnable;
   }
   if(ppu.obj.output.above.priority > priority) {
     priority = ppu.obj.output.above.priority;
     math.above.color = paletteColor(ppu.obj.output.above.palette);
-    math.below.colorEnable = r.obj.colorEnable && ppu.obj.output.above.palette >= 192;
+    math.below.colorEnable = io.obj.colorEnable && ppu.obj.output.above.palette >= 192;
   }
   if(priority == 0) {
     math.above.color = paletteColor(0);
-    math.below.colorEnable = r.back.colorEnable;
+    math.below.colorEnable = io.back.colorEnable;
   }
 
   if(!ppu.window.output.below.colorEnable) math.below.colorEnable = false;
   math.above.colorEnable = ppu.window.output.above.colorEnable;
   if(!math.below.colorEnable) return math.above.colorEnable ? math.above.color : (uint15)0;
 
-  if(r.blendMode && math.transparent) {
+  if(io.blendMode && math.transparent) {
     math.blendMode  = false;
     math.colorHalve = false;
   } else {
-    math.blendMode  = r.blendMode;
-    math.colorHalve = r.colorHalve && math.above.colorEnable;
+    math.blendMode  = io.blendMode;
+    math.colorHalve = io.colorHalve && math.above.colorEnable;
   }
 
   return blend(
@@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ auto PPU::Screen::above() -> uint16 {
 }
 
 auto PPU::Screen::blend(uint x, uint y) const -> uint15 {
-  if(!r.colorMode) {
+  if(!io.colorMode) {
     if(!math.colorHalve) {
       uint sum = x + y;
       uint carry = (sum - ((x ^ y) & 0x0421)) & 0x8420;
@@ -144,7 +144,7 @@ auto PPU::Screen::blend(uint x, uint y) const -> uint15 {
 
 auto PPU::Screen::paletteColor(uint8 palette) const -> uint15 {
   ppu.latch.cgramAddress = palette;
-  return ppu.cgram[palette];
+  return cgram[palette];
 }
 
 auto PPU::Screen::directColor(uint palette, uint tile) const -> uint15 {
@@ -157,21 +157,23 @@ auto PPU::Screen::directColor(uint palette, uint tile) const -> uint15 {
 }
 
 auto PPU::Screen::fixedColor() const -> uint15 {
-  return r.colorBlue << 10 | r.colorGreen << 5 | r.colorRed << 0;
+  return io.colorBlue << 10 | io.colorGreen << 5 | io.colorRed << 0;
 }
 
 auto PPU::Screen::reset() -> void {
-  r.blendMode = random(false);
-  r.directColor = random(false);
-  r.colorMode = random(false);
-  r.colorHalve = random(false);
-  r.bg1.colorEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg2.colorEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg3.colorEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg4.colorEnable = random(false);
-  r.obj.colorEnable = random(false);
-  r.back.colorEnable = random(false);
-  r.colorBlue = random(0);
-  r.colorGreen = random(0);
-  r.colorRed = random(0);
+  for(auto& n : cgram) n = random(0x0000);
+
+  io.blendMode = random(false);
+  io.directColor = random(false);
+  io.colorMode = random(false);
+  io.colorHalve = random(false);
+  io.bg1.colorEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg2.colorEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg3.colorEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg4.colorEnable = random(false);
+  io.obj.colorEnable = random(false);
+  io.back.colorEnable = random(false);
+  io.colorBlue = random(0);
+  io.colorGreen = random(0);
+  io.colorRed = random(0);
 }
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/screen/screen.hpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/screen/screen.hpp
index 9df1663a..d1061710 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/screen/screen.hpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/screen/screen.hpp
@@ -16,7 +16,9 @@ struct Screen {
   uint32* lineA;
   uint32* lineB;
 
-  struct Registers {
+  uint15 cgram[256];
+
+  struct IO {
     bool blendMode;
     bool directColor;
 
@@ -29,7 +31,7 @@ struct Screen {
     uint5 colorBlue;
     uint5 colorGreen;
     uint5 colorRed;
-  } r;
+  } io;
 
   struct Math {
     struct Screen {
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/serialization.cpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/serialization.cpp
index 9f6a99d6..7cc41b4f 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/serialization.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/serialization.cpp
@@ -16,8 +16,6 @@ auto PPU::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
 
   s.integer(vram.mask);
   s.array(vram.data, vram.mask + 1);
-  s.array(oam.data);
-  s.array(cgram.data);
 
   s.integer(ppu1.version);
   s.integer(ppu1.mdr);
@@ -40,46 +38,46 @@ auto PPU::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
   s.integer(latch.oamAddress);
   s.integer(latch.cgramAddress);
 
-  s.integer(r.displayDisable);
-  s.integer(r.displayBrightness);
+  s.integer(io.displayDisable);
+  s.integer(io.displayBrightness);
 
-  s.integer(r.oamBaseAddress);
-  s.integer(r.oamAddress);
-  s.integer(r.oamPriority);
+  s.integer(io.oamBaseAddress);
+  s.integer(io.oamAddress);
+  s.integer(io.oamPriority);
 
-  s.integer(r.bgPriority);
-  s.integer(r.bgMode);
+  s.integer(io.bgPriority);
+  s.integer(io.bgMode);
 
-  s.integer(r.hoffsetMode7);
-  s.integer(r.voffsetMode7);
+  s.integer(io.hoffsetMode7);
+  s.integer(io.voffsetMode7);
 
-  s.integer(r.vramIncrementMode);
-  s.integer(r.vramMapping);
-  s.integer(r.vramIncrementSize);
+  s.integer(io.vramIncrementMode);
+  s.integer(io.vramMapping);
+  s.integer(io.vramIncrementSize);
 
-  s.integer(r.vramAddress);
+  s.integer(io.vramAddress);
 
-  s.integer(r.repeatMode7);
-  s.integer(r.vflipMode7);
-  s.integer(r.hflipMode7);
+  s.integer(io.repeatMode7);
+  s.integer(io.vflipMode7);
+  s.integer(io.hflipMode7);
 
-  s.integer(r.m7a);
-  s.integer(r.m7b);
-  s.integer(r.m7c);
-  s.integer(r.m7d);
-  s.integer(r.m7x);
-  s.integer(r.m7y);
+  s.integer(io.m7a);
+  s.integer(io.m7b);
+  s.integer(io.m7c);
+  s.integer(io.m7d);
+  s.integer(io.m7x);
+  s.integer(io.m7y);
 
-  s.integer(r.cgramAddress);
-  s.integer(r.cgramAddressLatch);
+  s.integer(io.cgramAddress);
+  s.integer(io.cgramAddressLatch);
 
-  s.integer(r.extbg);
-  s.integer(r.pseudoHires);
-  s.integer(r.overscan);
-  s.integer(r.interlace);
+  s.integer(io.extbg);
+  s.integer(io.pseudoHires);
+  s.integer(io.overscan);
+  s.integer(io.interlace);
 
-  s.integer(r.hcounter);
-  s.integer(r.vcounter);
+  s.integer(io.hcounter);
+  s.integer(io.vcounter);
 
   bg1.serialize(s);
   bg2.serialize(s);
@@ -91,20 +89,20 @@ auto PPU::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
 }
 
 auto PPU::Background::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
-  s.integer(r.tiledataAddress);
-  s.integer(r.screenAddress);
-  s.integer(r.screenSize);
-  s.integer(r.mosaic);
-  s.integer(r.tileSize);
+  s.integer(io.tiledataAddress);
+  s.integer(io.screenAddress);
+  s.integer(io.screenSize);
+  s.integer(io.mosaic);
+  s.integer(io.tileSize);
 
-  s.integer(r.mode);
-  s.array(r.priority);
+  s.integer(io.mode);
+  s.array(io.priority);
 
-  s.integer(r.aboveEnable);
-  s.integer(r.belowEnable);
+  s.integer(io.aboveEnable);
+  s.integer(io.belowEnable);
 
-  s.integer(r.hoffset);
-  s.integer(r.voffset);
+  s.integer(io.hoffset);
+  s.integer(io.voffset);
 
   s.integer(latch.hoffset);
   s.integer(latch.voffset);
@@ -138,19 +136,31 @@ auto PPU::Background::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
 }
 
 auto PPU::Object::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
-  s.integer(r.aboveEnable);
-  s.integer(r.belowEnable);
-  s.integer(r.interlace);
+  for(auto& object : oam.object) {
+    s.integer(object.x);
+    s.integer(object.y);
+    s.integer(object.character);
+    s.integer(object.nameselect);
+    s.integer(object.vflip);
+    s.integer(object.hflip);
+    s.integer(object.priority);
+    s.integer(object.palette);
+    s.integer(object.size);
+  }
 
-  s.integer(r.baseSize);
-  s.integer(r.nameSelect);
-  s.integer(r.tiledataAddress);
-  s.integer(r.firstSprite);
+  s.integer(io.aboveEnable);
+  s.integer(io.belowEnable);
+  s.integer(io.interlace);
 
-  s.array(r.priority);
+  s.integer(io.baseSize);
+  s.integer(io.nameselect);
+  s.integer(io.tiledataAddress);
+  s.integer(io.firstSprite);
 
-  s.integer(r.timeOver);
-  s.integer(r.rangeOver);
+  s.array(io.priority);
+
+  s.integer(io.timeOver);
+  s.integer(io.rangeOver);
 
   s.integer(t.x);
   s.integer(t.y);
@@ -179,73 +189,61 @@ auto PPU::Object::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
 
   s.integer(output.below.priority);
   s.integer(output.below.palette);
-
-  for(auto n : range(128)) {
-    s.integer(list[n].x);
-    s.integer(list[n].y);
-    s.integer(list[n].character);
-    s.integer(list[n].nameSelect);
-    s.integer(list[n].vflip);
-    s.integer(list[n].hflip);
-    s.integer(list[n].priority);
-    s.integer(list[n].palette);
-    s.integer(list[n].size);
-  }
 }
 
 auto PPU::Window::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
-  s.integer(r.bg1.oneEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg1.oneInvert);
-  s.integer(r.bg1.twoEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg1.twoInvert);
-  s.integer(r.bg1.mask);
-  s.integer(r.bg1.aboveEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg1.belowEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg1.oneEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg1.oneInvert);
+  s.integer(io.bg1.twoEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg1.twoInvert);
+  s.integer(io.bg1.mask);
+  s.integer(io.bg1.aboveEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg1.belowEnable);
 
-  s.integer(r.bg2.oneEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg2.oneInvert);
-  s.integer(r.bg2.twoEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg2.twoInvert);
-  s.integer(r.bg2.mask);
-  s.integer(r.bg2.aboveEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg2.belowEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg2.oneEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg2.oneInvert);
+  s.integer(io.bg2.twoEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg2.twoInvert);
+  s.integer(io.bg2.mask);
+  s.integer(io.bg2.aboveEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg2.belowEnable);
 
-  s.integer(r.bg3.oneEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg3.oneInvert);
-  s.integer(r.bg3.twoEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg3.twoInvert);
-  s.integer(r.bg3.mask);
-  s.integer(r.bg3.aboveEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg3.belowEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg3.oneEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg3.oneInvert);
+  s.integer(io.bg3.twoEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg3.twoInvert);
+  s.integer(io.bg3.mask);
+  s.integer(io.bg3.aboveEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg3.belowEnable);
 
-  s.integer(r.bg4.oneEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg4.oneInvert);
-  s.integer(r.bg4.twoEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg4.twoInvert);
-  s.integer(r.bg4.mask);
-  s.integer(r.bg4.aboveEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg4.belowEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg4.oneEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg4.oneInvert);
+  s.integer(io.bg4.twoEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg4.twoInvert);
+  s.integer(io.bg4.mask);
+  s.integer(io.bg4.aboveEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg4.belowEnable);
 
-  s.integer(r.obj.oneEnable);
-  s.integer(r.obj.oneInvert);
-  s.integer(r.obj.twoEnable);
-  s.integer(r.obj.twoInvert);
-  s.integer(r.obj.mask);
-  s.integer(r.obj.aboveEnable);
-  s.integer(r.obj.belowEnable);
+  s.integer(io.obj.oneEnable);
+  s.integer(io.obj.oneInvert);
+  s.integer(io.obj.twoEnable);
+  s.integer(io.obj.twoInvert);
+  s.integer(io.obj.mask);
+  s.integer(io.obj.aboveEnable);
+  s.integer(io.obj.belowEnable);
 
-  s.integer(r.col.oneEnable);
-  s.integer(r.col.oneInvert);
-  s.integer(r.col.twoEnable);
-  s.integer(r.col.twoInvert);
-  s.integer(r.col.mask);
-  s.integer(r.col.aboveMask);
-  s.integer(r.col.belowMask);
+  s.integer(io.col.oneEnable);
+  s.integer(io.col.oneInvert);
+  s.integer(io.col.twoEnable);
+  s.integer(io.col.twoInvert);
+  s.integer(io.col.mask);
+  s.integer(io.col.aboveMask);
+  s.integer(io.col.belowMask);
 
-  s.integer(r.oneLeft);
-  s.integer(r.oneRight);
-  s.integer(r.twoLeft);
-  s.integer(r.twoRight);
+  s.integer(io.oneLeft);
+  s.integer(io.oneRight);
+  s.integer(io.twoLeft);
+  s.integer(io.twoRight);
 
   s.integer(output.above.colorEnable);
   s.integer(output.below.colorEnable);
@@ -254,21 +252,23 @@ auto PPU::Window::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
 }
 
 auto PPU::Screen::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
-  s.integer(r.blendMode);
-  s.integer(r.directColor);
+  s.array(cgram);
 
-  s.integer(r.colorMode);
-  s.integer(r.colorHalve);
-  s.integer(r.bg1.colorEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg2.colorEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg3.colorEnable);
-  s.integer(r.bg4.colorEnable);
-  s.integer(r.obj.colorEnable);
-  s.integer(r.back.colorEnable);
+  s.integer(io.blendMode);
+  s.integer(io.directColor);
 
-  s.integer(r.colorBlue);
-  s.integer(r.colorGreen);
-  s.integer(r.colorRed);
+  s.integer(io.colorMode);
+  s.integer(io.colorHalve);
+  s.integer(io.bg1.colorEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg2.colorEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg3.colorEnable);
+  s.integer(io.bg4.colorEnable);
+  s.integer(io.obj.colorEnable);
+  s.integer(io.back.colorEnable);
+
+  s.integer(io.colorBlue);
+  s.integer(io.colorGreen);
+  s.integer(io.colorRed);
 
   s.integer(math.above.color);
   s.integer(math.above.colorEnable);
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/window/window.cpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/window/window.cpp
index 078caa46..477f85f2 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/window/window.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/window/window.cpp
@@ -3,39 +3,39 @@ auto PPU::Window::scanline() -> void {
 }
 
 auto PPU::Window::run() -> void {
-  bool one = (x >= r.oneLeft && x <= r.oneRight);
-  bool two = (x >= r.twoLeft && x <= r.twoRight);
+  bool one = (x >= io.oneLeft && x <= io.oneRight);
+  bool two = (x >= io.twoLeft && x <= io.twoRight);
   x++;
 
-  if(test(r.bg1.oneEnable, one ^ r.bg1.oneInvert, r.bg1.twoEnable, two ^ r.bg1.twoInvert, r.bg1.mask)) {
-    if(r.bg1.aboveEnable) ppu.bg1.output.above.priority = 0;
-    if(r.bg1.belowEnable) ppu.bg1.output.below.priority = 0;
+  if(test(io.bg1.oneEnable, one ^ io.bg1.oneInvert, io.bg1.twoEnable, two ^ io.bg1.twoInvert, io.bg1.mask)) {
+    if(io.bg1.aboveEnable) ppu.bg1.output.above.priority = 0;
+    if(io.bg1.belowEnable) ppu.bg1.output.below.priority = 0;
   }
 
-  if(test(r.bg2.oneEnable, one ^ r.bg2.oneInvert, r.bg2.twoEnable, two ^ r.bg2.twoInvert, r.bg2.mask)) {
-    if(r.bg2.aboveEnable) ppu.bg2.output.above.priority = 0;
-    if(r.bg2.belowEnable) ppu.bg2.output.below.priority = 0;
+  if(test(io.bg2.oneEnable, one ^ io.bg2.oneInvert, io.bg2.twoEnable, two ^ io.bg2.twoInvert, io.bg2.mask)) {
+    if(io.bg2.aboveEnable) ppu.bg2.output.above.priority = 0;
+    if(io.bg2.belowEnable) ppu.bg2.output.below.priority = 0;
   }
 
-  if(test(r.bg3.oneEnable, one ^ r.bg3.oneInvert, r.bg3.twoEnable, two ^ r.bg3.twoInvert, r.bg3.mask)) {
-    if(r.bg3.aboveEnable) ppu.bg3.output.above.priority = 0;
-    if(r.bg3.belowEnable) ppu.bg3.output.below.priority = 0;
+  if(test(io.bg3.oneEnable, one ^ io.bg3.oneInvert, io.bg3.twoEnable, two ^ io.bg3.twoInvert, io.bg3.mask)) {
+    if(io.bg3.aboveEnable) ppu.bg3.output.above.priority = 0;
+    if(io.bg3.belowEnable) ppu.bg3.output.below.priority = 0;
   }
 
-  if(test(r.bg4.oneEnable, one ^ r.bg4.oneInvert, r.bg4.twoEnable, two ^ r.bg4.twoInvert, r.bg4.mask)) {
-    if(r.bg4.aboveEnable) ppu.bg4.output.above.priority = 0;
-    if(r.bg4.belowEnable) ppu.bg4.output.below.priority = 0;
+  if(test(io.bg4.oneEnable, one ^ io.bg4.oneInvert, io.bg4.twoEnable, two ^ io.bg4.twoInvert, io.bg4.mask)) {
+    if(io.bg4.aboveEnable) ppu.bg4.output.above.priority = 0;
+    if(io.bg4.belowEnable) ppu.bg4.output.below.priority = 0;
   }
 
-  if(test(r.obj.oneEnable, one ^ r.obj.oneInvert, r.obj.twoEnable, two ^ r.obj.twoInvert, r.obj.mask)) {
-    if(r.obj.aboveEnable) ppu.obj.output.above.priority = 0;
-    if(r.obj.belowEnable) ppu.obj.output.below.priority = 0;
+  if(test(io.obj.oneEnable, one ^ io.obj.oneInvert, io.obj.twoEnable, two ^ io.obj.twoInvert, io.obj.mask)) {
+    if(io.obj.aboveEnable) ppu.obj.output.above.priority = 0;
+    if(io.obj.belowEnable) ppu.obj.output.below.priority = 0;
   }
 
-  bool value = test(r.col.oneEnable, one ^ r.col.oneInvert, r.col.twoEnable, two ^ r.col.twoInvert, r.col.mask);
+  bool value = test(io.col.oneEnable, one ^ io.col.oneInvert, io.col.twoEnable, two ^ io.col.twoInvert, io.col.mask);
   bool array[] = {true, value, !value, false};
-  output.above.colorEnable = array[r.col.aboveMask];
-  output.below.colorEnable = array[r.col.belowMask];
+  output.above.colorEnable = array[io.col.aboveMask];
+  output.below.colorEnable = array[io.col.belowMask];
 }
 
 auto PPU::Window::test(bool oneEnable, bool one, bool twoEnable, bool two, uint mask) -> bool {
@@ -47,58 +47,58 @@ auto PPU::Window::test(bool oneEnable, bool one, bool twoEnable, bool two, uint
 }
 
 auto PPU::Window::reset() -> void {
-  r.bg1.oneEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg1.oneInvert = random(false);
-  r.bg1.twoEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg1.twoInvert = random(false);
-  r.bg1.mask = random(0);
-  r.bg1.aboveEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg1.belowEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg1.oneEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg1.oneInvert = random(false);
+  io.bg1.twoEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg1.twoInvert = random(false);
+  io.bg1.mask = random(0);
+  io.bg1.aboveEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg1.belowEnable = random(false);
 
-  r.bg2.oneEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg2.oneInvert = random(false);
-  r.bg2.twoEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg2.twoInvert = random(false);
-  r.bg2.mask = random(0);
-  r.bg2.aboveEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg2.belowEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg2.oneEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg2.oneInvert = random(false);
+  io.bg2.twoEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg2.twoInvert = random(false);
+  io.bg2.mask = random(0);
+  io.bg2.aboveEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg2.belowEnable = random(false);
 
-  r.bg3.oneEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg3.oneInvert = random(false);
-  r.bg3.twoEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg3.twoInvert = random(false);
-  r.bg3.mask = random(0);
-  r.bg3.aboveEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg3.belowEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg3.oneEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg3.oneInvert = random(false);
+  io.bg3.twoEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg3.twoInvert = random(false);
+  io.bg3.mask = random(0);
+  io.bg3.aboveEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg3.belowEnable = random(false);
 
-  r.bg4.oneEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg4.oneInvert = random(false);
-  r.bg4.twoEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg4.twoInvert = random(false);
-  r.bg4.mask = random(0);
-  r.bg4.aboveEnable = random(false);
-  r.bg4.belowEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg4.oneEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg4.oneInvert = random(false);
+  io.bg4.twoEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg4.twoInvert = random(false);
+  io.bg4.mask = random(0);
+  io.bg4.aboveEnable = random(false);
+  io.bg4.belowEnable = random(false);
 
-  r.obj.oneEnable = random(false);
-  r.obj.oneInvert = random(false);
-  r.obj.twoEnable = random(false);
-  r.obj.twoInvert = random(false);
-  r.obj.mask = random(0);
-  r.obj.aboveEnable = random(false);
-  r.obj.belowEnable = random(false);
+  io.obj.oneEnable = random(false);
+  io.obj.oneInvert = random(false);
+  io.obj.twoEnable = random(false);
+  io.obj.twoInvert = random(false);
+  io.obj.mask = random(0);
+  io.obj.aboveEnable = random(false);
+  io.obj.belowEnable = random(false);
 
-  r.col.oneEnable = random(false);
-  r.col.oneInvert = random(false);
-  r.col.twoEnable = random(false);
-  r.col.twoInvert = random(false);
-  r.col.mask = random(0);
-  r.col.aboveMask = random(0);
-  r.col.belowMask = random(0);
+  io.col.oneEnable = random(false);
+  io.col.oneInvert = random(false);
+  io.col.twoEnable = random(false);
+  io.col.twoInvert = random(false);
+  io.col.mask = random(0);
+  io.col.aboveMask = random(0);
+  io.col.belowMask = random(0);
 
-  r.oneLeft = random(0x00);
-  r.oneRight = random(0x00);
-  r.twoLeft = random(0x00);
-  r.twoRight = random(0x00);
+  io.oneLeft = random(0x00);
+  io.oneRight = random(0x00);
+  io.twoLeft = random(0x00);
+  io.twoRight = random(0x00);
 
   output.above.colorEnable = 0;
   output.below.colorEnable = 0;
diff --git a/higan/sfc/ppu/window/window.hpp b/higan/sfc/ppu/window/window.hpp
index 4de8d42a..d23b6897 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/ppu/window/window.hpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/ppu/window/window.hpp
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ struct Window {
 
   auto serialize(serializer&) -> void;
 
-  struct Registers {
+  struct IO {
     struct Layer {
       bool oneEnable;
       bool oneInvert;
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ struct Window {
     uint8 oneRight;
     uint8 twoLeft;
     uint8 twoRight;
-  } r;
+  } io;
 
   struct Output {
     struct Pixel {
diff --git a/higan/sfc/smp/memory.cpp b/higan/sfc/smp/memory.cpp
index d822c129..b1d19235 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/smp/memory.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/smp/memory.cpp
@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
 alwaysinline auto SMP::readRAM(uint16 addr) -> uint8 {
-  if(addr >= 0xffc0 && status.iplromEnable) return iplrom[addr & 0x3f];
-  if(status.ramDisable) return 0x5a;  //0xff on mini-SNES
+  if(addr >= 0xffc0 && io.iplromEnable) return iplrom[addr & 0x3f];
+  if(io.ramDisable) return 0x5a;  //0xff on mini-SNES
   return apuram[addr];
 }
 
 alwaysinline auto SMP::writeRAM(uint16 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
   //writes to $ffc0-$ffff always go to apuram, even if the iplrom is enabled
-  if(status.ramWritable && !status.ramDisable) apuram[addr] = data;
+  if(io.ramWritable && !io.ramDisable) apuram[addr] = data;
 }
 
 auto SMP::readPort(uint2 port) const -> uint8 {
@@ -28,24 +28,24 @@ auto SMP::readBus(uint16 addr) -> uint8 {
     return 0x00;
 
   case 0xf2:  //DSPADDR
-    return status.dspAddr;
+    return io.dspAddr;
 
   case 0xf3:  //DSPDATA
     //0x80-0xff are read-only mirrors of 0x00-0x7f
-    return dsp.read(status.dspAddr & 0x7f);
+    return dsp.read(io.dspAddr & 0x7f);
 
   case 0xf4:  //CPUIO0
   case 0xf5:  //CPUIO1
   case 0xf6:  //CPUIO2
   case 0xf7:  //CPUIO3
     synchronizeCPU();
-    return cpu.portRead(addr);
+    return cpu.readPort(addr);
 
   case 0xf8:  //RAM0
-    return status.ram00f8;
+    return io.ram00f8;
 
   case 0xf9:  //RAM1
-    return status.ram00f9;
+    return io.ram00f9;
 
   case 0xfa:  //T0TARGET
   case 0xfb:  //T1TARGET
@@ -76,14 +76,14 @@ auto SMP::writeBus(uint16 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
   case 0xf0:  //TEST
     if(regs.p.p) break;  //writes only valid when P flag is clear
 
-    status.clockSpeed    = (data >> 6) & 3;
-    status.timerSpeed    = (data >> 4) & 3;
-    status.timersEnable  = data & 0x08;
-    status.ramDisable    = data & 0x04;
-    status.ramWritable   = data & 0x02;
-    status.timersDisable = data & 0x01;
+    io.clockSpeed    = (data >> 6) & 3;
+    io.timerSpeed    = (data >> 4) & 3;
+    io.timersEnable  = data & 0x08;
+    io.ramDisable    = data & 0x04;
+    io.ramWritable   = data & 0x02;
+    io.timersDisable = data & 0x01;
 
-    status.timerStep = (1 << status.clockSpeed) + (2 << status.timerSpeed);
+    io.timerStep = (1 << io.clockSpeed) + (2 << io.timerSpeed);
 
     timer0.synchronizeStage1();
     timer1.synchronizeStage1();
@@ -91,19 +91,19 @@ auto SMP::writeBus(uint16 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
     break;
 
   case 0xf1:  //CONTROL
-    status.iplromEnable = data & 0x80;
+    io.iplromEnable = data & 0x80;
 
     if(data & 0x30) {
       //one-time clearing of APU port read registers,
       //emulated by simulating CPU writes of 0x00
       synchronizeCPU();
       if(data & 0x20) {
-        cpu.portWrite(2, 0x00);
-        cpu.portWrite(3, 0x00);
+        cpu.writePort(2, 0x00);
+        cpu.writePort(3, 0x00);
       }
       if(data & 0x10) {
-        cpu.portWrite(0, 0x00);
-        cpu.portWrite(1, 0x00);
+        cpu.writePort(0, 0x00);
+        cpu.writePort(1, 0x00);
       }
     }
 
@@ -128,12 +128,12 @@ auto SMP::writeBus(uint16 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
     break;
 
   case 0xf2:  //DSPADDR
-    status.dspAddr = data;
+    io.dspAddr = data;
     break;
 
   case 0xf3:  //DSPDATA
-    if(status.dspAddr & 0x80) break;  //0x80-0xff are read-only mirrors of 0x00-0x7f
-    dsp.write(status.dspAddr & 0x7f, data);
+    if(io.dspAddr & 0x80) break;  //0x80-0xff are read-only mirrors of 0x00-0x7f
+    dsp.write(io.dspAddr & 0x7f, data);
     break;
 
   case 0xf4:  //CPUIO0
@@ -145,11 +145,11 @@ auto SMP::writeBus(uint16 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
     break;
 
   case 0xf8:  //RAM0
-    status.ram00f8 = data;
+    io.ram00f8 = data;
     break;
 
   case 0xf9:  //RAM1
-    status.ram00f9 = data;
+    io.ram00f9 = data;
     break;
 
   case 0xfa:  //T0TARGET
@@ -173,27 +173,27 @@ auto SMP::writeBus(uint16 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
   writeRAM(addr, data);  //all writes, even to MMIO registers, appear on bus
 }
 
-auto SMP::io() -> void {
-  addClocks(24);
+auto SMP::idle() -> void {
+  step(24);
   cycleEdge();
 }
 
 auto SMP::read(uint16 addr) -> uint8 {
-  addClocks(12);
+  step(12);
   uint8 data = readBus(addr);
-  addClocks(12);
+  step(12);
   cycleEdge();
   return data;
 }
 
 auto SMP::write(uint16 addr, uint8 data) -> void {
-  addClocks(24);
+  step(24);
   writeBus(addr, data);
   cycleEdge();
 }
 
 auto SMP::readDisassembler(uint16 addr) -> uint8 {
   if((addr & 0xfff0) == 0x00f0) return 0x00;
-  if((addr & 0xffc0) == 0xffc0 && status.iplromEnable) return iplrom[addr & 0x3f];
+  if((addr & 0xffc0) == 0xffc0 && io.iplromEnable) return iplrom[addr & 0x3f];
   return apuram[addr];
 }
diff --git a/higan/sfc/smp/serialization.cpp b/higan/sfc/smp/serialization.cpp
index 47310970..215f392b 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/smp/serialization.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/smp/serialization.cpp
@@ -4,23 +4,23 @@ auto SMP::serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
 
   s.array(apuram);
 
-  s.integer(status.clockCounter);
-  s.integer(status.dspCounter);
-  s.integer(status.timerStep);
+  s.integer(io.clockCounter);
+  s.integer(io.dspCounter);
+  s.integer(io.timerStep);
 
-  s.integer(status.clockSpeed);
-  s.integer(status.timerSpeed);
-  s.integer(status.timersEnable);
-  s.integer(status.ramDisable);
-  s.integer(status.ramWritable);
-  s.integer(status.timersDisable);
+  s.integer(io.clockSpeed);
+  s.integer(io.timerSpeed);
+  s.integer(io.timersEnable);
+  s.integer(io.ramDisable);
+  s.integer(io.ramWritable);
+  s.integer(io.timersDisable);
 
-  s.integer(status.iplromEnable);
+  s.integer(io.iplromEnable);
 
-  s.integer(status.dspAddr);
+  s.integer(io.dspAddr);
 
-  s.integer(status.ram00f8);
-  s.integer(status.ram00f9);
+  s.integer(io.ram00f8);
+  s.integer(io.ram00f9);
 
   s.integer(timer0.stage0);
   s.integer(timer0.stage1);
diff --git a/higan/sfc/smp/smp.cpp b/higan/sfc/smp/smp.cpp
index 15340284..19cc44eb 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/smp/smp.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/smp/smp.cpp
@@ -8,11 +8,6 @@ SMP smp;
 #include "timing.cpp"
 #include "serialization.cpp"
 
-auto SMP::step(uint clocks) -> void {
-  clock += clocks * (uint64)cpu.frequency;
-  dsp.clock -= clocks;
-}
-
 auto SMP::synchronizeCPU() -> void {
   if(clock >= 0 && !scheduler.synchronizing()) co_switch(cpu.thread);
 }
@@ -63,27 +58,27 @@ auto SMP::reset() -> void {
   apuram[0x00f6] = 0x00;
   apuram[0x00f7] = 0x00;
 
-  status.clockCounter = 0;
-  status.dspCounter = 0;
-  status.timerStep = 3;
+  io.clockCounter = 0;
+  io.dspCounter = 0;
+  io.timerStep = 3;
 
   //$00f0
-  status.clockSpeed = 0;
-  status.timerSpeed = 0;
-  status.timersEnable = true;
-  status.ramDisable = false;
-  status.ramWritable = true;
-  status.timersDisable = false;
+  io.clockSpeed = 0;
+  io.timerSpeed = 0;
+  io.timersEnable = true;
+  io.ramDisable = false;
+  io.ramWritable = true;
+  io.timersDisable = false;
 
   //$00f1
-  status.iplromEnable = true;
+  io.iplromEnable = true;
 
   //$00f2
-  status.dspAddr = 0x00;
+  io.dspAddr = 0x00;
 
   //$00f8,$00f9
-  status.ram00f8 = 0x00;
-  status.ram00f9 = 0x00;
+  io.ram00f8 = 0x00;
+  io.ram00f9 = 0x00;
 
   timer0.stage0 = 0;
   timer1.stage0 = 0;
diff --git a/higan/sfc/smp/smp.hpp b/higan/sfc/smp/smp.hpp
index d24a2160..3914ab5c 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/smp/smp.hpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/smp/smp.hpp
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 //Sony CXP1100Q-1
 
 struct SMP : Processor::SPC700, Thread {
-  alwaysinline auto step(uint clocks) -> void;
   alwaysinline auto synchronizeCPU() -> void;
   alwaysinline auto synchronizeDSP() -> void;
 
@@ -19,7 +18,7 @@ struct SMP : Processor::SPC700, Thread {
   uint8 apuram[64 * 1024];
 
 privileged:
-  struct {
+  struct IO {
     //timing
     uint clockCounter;
     uint dspCounter;
@@ -42,7 +41,7 @@ privileged:
     //$00f8,$00f9
     uint8 ram00f8;
     uint8 ram00f9;
-  } status;
+  } io;
 
   static auto Enter() -> void;
 
@@ -53,15 +52,14 @@ privileged:
   auto readBus(uint16 addr) -> uint8;
   auto writeBus(uint16 addr, uint8 data) -> void;
 
-  auto io() -> void override;
+  auto idle() -> void override;
   auto read(uint16 addr) -> uint8 override;
   auto write(uint16 addr, uint8 data) -> void override;
 
   auto readDisassembler(uint16 addr) -> uint8 override;
 
   //timing.cpp
-  template<uint Frequency>
-  struct Timer {
+  template<uint Frequency> struct Timer {
     uint8 stage0;
     uint8 stage1;
     uint8 stage2;
@@ -78,7 +76,7 @@ privileged:
   Timer<192> timer1;
   Timer< 24> timer2;
 
-  alwaysinline auto addClocks(uint clocks) -> void;
+  alwaysinline auto step(uint clocks) -> void;
   alwaysinline auto cycleEdge() -> void;
 };
 
diff --git a/higan/sfc/smp/timing.cpp b/higan/sfc/smp/timing.cpp
index a73c816b..9a880d79 100644
--- a/higan/sfc/smp/timing.cpp
+++ b/higan/sfc/smp/timing.cpp
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
-auto SMP::addClocks(uint clocks) -> void {
-  step(clocks);
+auto SMP::step(uint clocks) -> void {
+  clock += clocks * (uint64)cpu.frequency;
+  dsp.clock -= clocks;
   synchronizeDSP();
 
   #if defined(DEBUGGER)
@@ -18,18 +19,17 @@ auto SMP::cycleEdge() -> void {
 
   //TEST register S-SMP speed control
   //24 clocks have already been added for this cycle at this point
-  switch(status.clockSpeed) {
-  case 0: break;                      //100% speed
-  case 1: addClocks(24); break;       // 50% speed
-  case 2: while(true) addClocks(24);  //  0% speed -- locks S-SMP
-  case 3: addClocks(24 * 9); break;   // 10% speed
+  switch(io.clockSpeed) {
+  case 0: break;                 //100% speed
+  case 1: step(24); break;       // 50% speed
+  case 2: while(true) step(24);  //  0% speed -- locks S-SMP
+  case 3: step(24 * 9); break;   // 10% speed
   }
 }
 
-template<unsigned Frequency>
-auto SMP::Timer<Frequency>::tick() -> void {
+template<uint Frequency> auto SMP::Timer<Frequency>::tick() -> void {
   //stage 0 increment
-  stage0 += smp.status.timerStep;
+  stage0 += smp.io.timerStep;
   if(stage0 < Frequency) return;
   stage0 -= Frequency;
 
@@ -38,18 +38,17 @@ auto SMP::Timer<Frequency>::tick() -> void {
   synchronizeStage1();
 }
 
-template<unsigned Frequency>
-auto SMP::Timer<Frequency>::synchronizeStage1() -> void {
+template<uint Frequency> auto SMP::Timer<Frequency>::synchronizeStage1() -> void {
   bool newLine = stage1;
-  if(smp.status.timersEnable == false) newLine = false;
-  if(smp.status.timersDisable == true) newLine = false;
+  if(!smp.io.timersEnable) newLine = false;
+  if(smp.io.timersDisable) newLine = false;
 
   bool oldLine = line;
   line = newLine;
   if(oldLine != 1 || newLine != 0) return;  //only pulse on 1->0 transition
 
   //stage 2 increment
-  if(enable == false) return;
+  if(!enable) return;
   if(++stage2 != target) return;
 
   //stage 3 increment
diff --git a/higan/target-tomoko/program/interface.cpp b/higan/target-tomoko/program/interface.cpp
index d2aa21ea..05384f1c 100644
--- a/higan/target-tomoko/program/interface.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-tomoko/program/interface.cpp
@@ -105,7 +105,7 @@ auto Program::inputRumble(uint port, uint device, uint input, bool enable) -> vo
   }
 }
 
-auto Program::dipSettings(const Markup::Node& node) -> uint {
+auto Program::dipSettings(Markup::Node node) -> uint {
   return 0;
 }
 
diff --git a/higan/target-tomoko/program/program.hpp b/higan/target-tomoko/program/program.hpp
index 2800bd4b..a00ae010 100644
--- a/higan/target-tomoko/program/program.hpp
+++ b/higan/target-tomoko/program/program.hpp
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ struct Program : Emulator::Interface::Bind {
   auto audioSample(const double* samples, uint channels) -> void override;
   auto inputPoll(uint port, uint device, uint input) -> int16 override;
   auto inputRumble(uint port, uint device, uint input, bool enable) -> void override;
-  auto dipSettings(const Markup::Node& node) -> uint override;
+  auto dipSettings(Markup::Node node) -> uint override;
   auto notify(string text) -> void override;
 
   //medium.cpp
diff --git a/higan/target-tomoko/program/state.cpp b/higan/target-tomoko/program/state.cpp
index 73556d4b..a55484a9 100644
--- a/higan/target-tomoko/program/state.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-tomoko/program/state.cpp
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ auto Program::stateName(uint slot, bool manager) -> string {
   return {
     mediumPaths(1), "higan/states/",
     manager ? "managed/" : "quick/",
-    "slot-", natural(slot, 2L), ".bst"
+    "slot-", numeral(slot, 2L), ".bst"
   };
 }
 
diff --git a/higan/ws/interface/interface.cpp b/higan/ws/interface/interface.cpp
index 426a1414..3ecc99ce 100644
--- a/higan/ws/interface/interface.cpp
+++ b/higan/ws/interface/interface.cpp
@@ -146,8 +146,8 @@ auto Interface::cheatSet(const lstring& list) -> void {
     lstring codes = codeset.split("+");
     for(auto& code : codes) {
       lstring part = code.split("/");
-      if(part.size() == 2) cheat.append(hex(part[0]), hex(part[1]));
-      if(part.size() == 3) cheat.append(hex(part[0]), hex(part[1]), hex(part[2]));
+      if(part.size() == 2) cheat.append(part[0].hex(), part[1].hex());
+      if(part.size() == 3) cheat.append(part[0].hex(), part[1].hex(), part[2].hex());
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/hiro/cocoa/widget/viewport.cpp b/hiro/cocoa/widget/viewport.cpp
index 52fcf14d..88a7c183 100644
--- a/hiro/cocoa/widget/viewport.cpp
+++ b/hiro/cocoa/widget/viewport.cpp
@@ -53,8 +53,8 @@ auto pViewport::destruct() -> void {
   }
 }
 
-auto pViewport::handle() const -> uintptr {
-  return (uintptr)cocoaViewport;
+auto pViewport::handle() const -> uintptr_t {
+  return (uintptr_t)cocoaViewport;
 }
 
 auto pViewport::setDroppable(bool droppable) -> void {
diff --git a/hiro/cocoa/widget/viewport.hpp b/hiro/cocoa/widget/viewport.hpp
index 36a93eee..b9811b17 100644
--- a/hiro/cocoa/widget/viewport.hpp
+++ b/hiro/cocoa/widget/viewport.hpp
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ namespace hiro {
 struct pViewport : pWidget {
   Declare(Viewport, Widget)
 
-  auto handle() const -> uintptr;
+  auto handle() const -> uintptr_t;
   auto setDroppable(bool droppable) -> void;
 
   CocoaViewport* cocoaViewport = nullptr;
diff --git a/hiro/gtk/widget/icon-view.cpp b/hiro/gtk/widget/icon-view.cpp
index eb8c3ea9..2bcae943 100644
--- a/hiro/gtk/widget/icon-view.cpp
+++ b/hiro/gtk/widget/icon-view.cpp
@@ -193,7 +193,7 @@ auto pIconView::_updateSelected() -> void {
   while(p) {
     auto path = (GtkTreePath*)p->data;
     char* pathString = gtk_tree_path_to_string(path);
-    unsigned position = natural(pathString);
+    unsigned position = toNatural(pathString);
     g_free(pathString);
     selected.append(position);
     p = p->next;
diff --git a/hiro/gtk/widget/table-view.cpp b/hiro/gtk/widget/table-view.cpp
index aa88fd7a..315b4a89 100644
--- a/hiro/gtk/widget/table-view.cpp
+++ b/hiro/gtk/widget/table-view.cpp
@@ -218,7 +218,7 @@ auto pTableView::_doContext() -> void {
 
 auto pTableView::_doDataFunc(GtkTreeViewColumn* gtkColumn, GtkCellRenderer* renderer, GtkTreeIter* iter) -> void {
   auto path = gtk_tree_model_get_string_from_iter(gtkTreeModel, iter);
-  auto row = natural(path);
+  auto row = toNatural(path);
   g_free(path);
 
   if(auto& header = state().header) {
@@ -271,7 +271,7 @@ auto pTableView::_doEdit(GtkCellRendererText* gtkCellRendererText, const char* p
     for(auto& column : header->state.columns) {
       if(auto delegate = column->self()) {
         if(gtkCellRendererText == GTK_CELL_RENDERER_TEXT(delegate->gtkCellText)) {
-          auto row = natural(path);
+          auto row = toNatural(path);
           if(auto item = self().item(row)) {
             if(auto cell = item->cell(column->offset())) {
               if(string{text} != cell->state.text) {
@@ -343,7 +343,7 @@ auto pTableView::_doToggle(GtkCellRendererToggle* gtkCellRendererToggle, const c
     for(auto& column : header->state.columns) {
       if(auto delegate = column->self()) {
         if(gtkCellRendererToggle == GTK_CELL_RENDERER_TOGGLE(delegate->gtkCellToggle)) {
-          auto row = natural(path);
+          auto row = toNatural(path);
           if(auto item = self().item(row)) {
             if(auto cell = item->cell(column->offset())) {
               cell->setChecked(!cell->checked());
@@ -371,7 +371,7 @@ auto pTableView::_updateSelected() -> void {
     GtkTreeIter iter;
     if(gtk_tree_model_get_iter(gtkTreeModel, &iter, (GtkTreePath*)p->data)) {
       char* pathname = gtk_tree_model_get_string_from_iter(gtkTreeModel, &iter);
-      unsigned selection = natural(pathname);
+      unsigned selection = toNatural(pathname);
       g_free(pathname);
       selected.append(selection);
     }
diff --git a/nall/atoi.hpp b/nall/atoi.hpp
index 4fc639ee..46921f76 100644
--- a/nall/atoi.hpp
+++ b/nall/atoi.hpp
@@ -4,83 +4,83 @@
 
 namespace nall {
 
-constexpr inline auto binary_(const char* s, uintmax sum = 0) -> uintmax {
+constexpr inline auto toBinary_(const char* s, uintmax_t sum = 0) -> uintmax_t {
   return (
-    *s == '0' || *s == '1' ? binary_(s + 1, (sum << 1) | *s - '0') :
-    *s == '\'' ? binary_(s + 1, sum) :
+    *s == '0' || *s == '1' ? toBinary_(s + 1, (sum << 1) | *s - '0') :
+    *s == '\'' ? toBinary_(s + 1, sum) :
     sum
   );
 }
 
-constexpr inline auto octal_(const char* s, uintmax sum = 0) -> uintmax {
+constexpr inline auto toOctal_(const char* s, uintmax_t sum = 0) -> uintmax_t {
   return (
-    *s >= '0' && *s <= '7' ? octal_(s + 1, (sum << 3) | *s - '0') :
-    *s == '\'' ? octal_(s + 1, sum) :
+    *s >= '0' && *s <= '7' ? toOctal_(s + 1, (sum << 3) | *s - '0') :
+    *s == '\'' ? toOctal_(s + 1, sum) :
     sum
   );
 }
 
-constexpr inline auto decimal_(const char* s, uintmax sum = 0) -> uintmax {
+constexpr inline auto toDecimal_(const char* s, uintmax_t sum = 0) -> uintmax_t {
   return (
-    *s >= '0' && *s <= '9' ? decimal_(s + 1, (sum * 10) + *s - '0') :
-    *s == '\'' ? decimal_(s + 1, sum) :
+    *s >= '0' && *s <= '9' ? toDecimal_(s + 1, (sum * 10) + *s - '0') :
+    *s == '\'' ? toDecimal_(s + 1, sum) :
     sum
   );
 }
 
-constexpr inline auto hex_(const char* s, uintmax sum = 0) -> uintmax {
+constexpr inline auto toHex_(const char* s, uintmax_t sum = 0) -> uintmax_t {
   return (
-    *s >= 'A' && *s <= 'F' ? hex_(s + 1, (sum << 4) | *s - 'A' + 10) :
-    *s >= 'a' && *s <= 'f' ? hex_(s + 1, (sum << 4) | *s - 'a' + 10) :
-    *s >= '0' && *s <= '9' ? hex_(s + 1, (sum << 4) | *s - '0') :
-    *s == '\'' ? hex_(s + 1, sum) :
+    *s >= 'A' && *s <= 'F' ? toHex_(s + 1, (sum << 4) | *s - 'A' + 10) :
+    *s >= 'a' && *s <= 'f' ? toHex_(s + 1, (sum << 4) | *s - 'a' + 10) :
+    *s >= '0' && *s <= '9' ? toHex_(s + 1, (sum << 4) | *s - '0') :
+    *s == '\'' ? toHex_(s + 1, sum) :
     sum
   );
 }
 
 //
 
-constexpr inline auto binary(const char* s) -> uintmax {
+constexpr inline auto toBinary(const char* s) -> uintmax_t {
   return (
-    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'B' || *(s + 1) == 'b') ? binary_(s + 2) :
-    *s == '%' ? binary_(s + 1) : binary_(s)
+    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'B' || *(s + 1) == 'b') ? toBinary_(s + 2) :
+    *s == '%' ? toBinary_(s + 1) : toBinary_(s)
   );
 }
 
-constexpr inline auto octal(const char* s) -> uintmax {
+constexpr inline auto toOctal(const char* s) -> uintmax_t {
   return (
-    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'O' || *(s + 1) == 'o') ? octal_(s + 2) :
-    octal_(s)
+    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'O' || *(s + 1) == 'o') ? toOctal_(s + 2) :
+    toOctal_(s)
   );
 }
 
-constexpr inline auto hex(const char* s) -> uintmax {
+constexpr inline auto toHex(const char* s) -> uintmax_t {
   return (
-    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'X' || *(s + 1) == 'x') ? hex_(s + 2) :
-    *s == '$' ? hex_(s + 1) : hex_(s)
+    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'X' || *(s + 1) == 'x') ? toHex_(s + 2) :
+    *s == '$' ? toHex_(s + 1) : toHex_(s)
   );
 }
 
 //
 
-constexpr inline auto natural(const char* s) -> uintmax {
+constexpr inline auto toNatural(const char* s) -> uintmax_t {
   return (
-    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'B' || *(s + 1) == 'b') ? binary_(s + 2) :
-    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'O' || *(s + 1) == 'o') ? octal_(s + 2) :
-    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'X' || *(s + 1) == 'x') ? hex_(s + 2) :
-    *s == '%' ? binary_(s + 1) : *s == '$' ? hex_(s + 1) : decimal_(s)
+    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'B' || *(s + 1) == 'b') ? toBinary_(s + 2) :
+    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'O' || *(s + 1) == 'o') ? toOctal_(s + 2) :
+    *s == '0' && (*(s + 1) == 'X' || *(s + 1) == 'x') ? toHex_(s + 2) :
+    *s == '%' ? toBinary_(s + 1) : *s == '$' ? toHex_(s + 1) : toDecimal_(s)
   );
 }
 
-constexpr inline auto integer(const char* s) -> intmax {
+constexpr inline auto toInteger(const char* s) -> intmax_t {
   return (
-    *s == '+' ? +natural(s + 1) : *s == '-' ? -natural(s + 1) : natural(s)
+    *s == '+' ? +toNatural(s + 1) : *s == '-' ? -toNatural(s + 1) : toNatural(s)
   );
 }
 
 //
 
-inline auto real(const char* s) -> double {
+inline auto toReal(const char* s) -> double {
   return atof(s);
 }
 
diff --git a/nall/bit.hpp b/nall/bit.hpp
index f2a54b6e..f935c864 100644
--- a/nall/bit.hpp
+++ b/nall/bit.hpp
@@ -4,28 +4,28 @@
 
 namespace nall {
 
-template<uint bits> inline auto uclamp(const uintmax x) -> uintmax {
-  enum : uintmax { b = 1ull << (bits - 1), y = b * 2 - 1 };
+template<uint bits> inline auto uclamp(const uintmax_t x) -> uintmax_t {
+  enum : uintmax_t { b = 1ull << (bits - 1), y = b * 2 - 1 };
   return y + ((x - y) & -(x < y));  //min(x, y);
 }
 
-template<uint bits> inline auto uclip(const uintmax x) -> uintmax {
-  enum : uintmax { b = 1ull << (bits - 1), m = b * 2 - 1 };
+template<uint bits> inline auto uclip(const uintmax_t x) -> uintmax_t {
+  enum : uintmax_t { b = 1ull << (bits - 1), m = b * 2 - 1 };
   return (x & m);
 }
 
-template<uint bits> inline auto sclamp(const intmax x) -> intmax {
-  enum : intmax { b = 1ull << (bits - 1), m = b - 1 };
+template<uint bits> inline auto sclamp(const intmax_t x) -> intmax_t {
+  enum : intmax_t { b = 1ull << (bits - 1), m = b - 1 };
   return (x > m) ? m : (x < -b) ? -b : x;
 }
 
-template<uint bits> inline auto sclip(const intmax x) -> intmax {
-  enum : uintmax { b = 1ull << (bits - 1), m = b * 2 - 1 };
+template<uint bits> inline auto sclip(const intmax_t x) -> intmax_t {
+  enum : uintmax_t { b = 1ull << (bits - 1), m = b * 2 - 1 };
   return ((x & m) ^ b) - b;
 }
 
 namespace bit {
-  constexpr inline auto mask(const char* s, uintmax sum = 0) -> uintmax {
+  constexpr inline auto mask(const char* s, uintmax_t sum = 0) -> uintmax_t {
     return (
       *s == '0' || *s == '1' ? mask(s + 1, (sum << 1) | 1) :
       *s == ' ' || *s == '_' ? mask(s + 1, sum) :
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ namespace bit {
     );
   }
 
-  constexpr inline auto test(const char* s, uintmax sum = 0) -> uintmax {
+  constexpr inline auto test(const char* s, uintmax_t sum = 0) -> uintmax_t {
     return (
       *s == '0' || *s == '1' ? test(s + 1, (sum << 1) | (*s - '0')) :
       *s == ' ' || *s == '_' ? test(s + 1, sum) :
@@ -44,22 +44,22 @@ namespace bit {
   }
 
   //lowest(0b1110) == 0b0010
-  constexpr inline auto lowest(const uintmax x) -> uintmax {
+  constexpr inline auto lowest(const uintmax_t x) -> uintmax_t {
     return x & -x;
   }
 
   //clear_lowest(0b1110) == 0b1100
-  constexpr inline auto clearLowest(const uintmax x) -> uintmax {
+  constexpr inline auto clearLowest(const uintmax_t x) -> uintmax_t {
     return x & (x - 1);
   }
 
   //set_lowest(0b0101) == 0b0111
-  constexpr inline auto setLowest(const uintmax x) -> uintmax {
+  constexpr inline auto setLowest(const uintmax_t x) -> uintmax_t {
     return x | (x + 1);
   }
 
   //count number of bits set in a byte
-  inline auto count(uintmax x) -> uint {
+  inline auto count(uintmax_t x) -> uint {
     uint count = 0;
     do count += x & 1; while(x >>= 1);
     return count;
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ namespace bit {
 
   //return index of the first bit set (or zero of no bits are set)
   //first(0b1000) == 3
-  inline auto first(uintmax x) -> uint {
+  inline auto first(uintmax_t x) -> uint {
     uint first = 0;
     while(x) { if(x & 1) break; x >>= 1; first++; }
     return first;
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ namespace bit {
 
   //round up to next highest single bit:
   //round(15) == 16, round(16) == 16, round(17) == 32
-  inline auto round(uintmax x) -> uintmax {
+  inline auto round(uintmax_t x) -> uintmax_t {
     if((x & (x - 1)) == 0) return x;
     while(x & (x - 1)) x &= x - 1;
     return x << 1;
diff --git a/nall/config.hpp b/nall/config.hpp
index 2efb538f..83912d63 100644
--- a/nall/config.hpp
+++ b/nall/config.hpp
@@ -30,9 +30,9 @@ struct Node {
   auto set(const string& value) -> void {
     switch(type) {
     case Type::Boolean: *(bool*)data = (value != "false"); break;
-    case Type::Integer: *(int*)data = integer(value); break;
-    case Type::Natural: *(uint*)data = natural(value); break;
-    case Type::Double: *(double*)data = real(value); break;
+    case Type::Integer: *(int*)data = toInteger(value); break;
+    case Type::Natural: *(uint*)data = toNatural(value); break;
+    case Type::Double: *(double*)data = toReal(value); break;
     case Type::String: *(string*)data = value; break;
     }
   }
diff --git a/nall/file.hpp b/nall/file.hpp
index cc5228f5..93014895 100644
--- a/nall/file.hpp
+++ b/nall/file.hpp
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ struct file : inode, varint {
     return !(data.st_mode & S_IFDIR);
   }
 
-  static auto size(const string& filename) -> uintmax {
+  static auto size(const string& filename) -> uintmax_t {
     #if defined(API_POSIX)
     struct stat data;
     stat(filename, &data);
@@ -127,16 +127,16 @@ struct file : inode, varint {
     return buffer[(file_offset++) & buffer_mask];
   }
 
-  auto readl(uint length = 1) -> uintmax {
-    uintmax data = 0;
+  auto readl(uint length = 1) -> uintmax_t {
+    uintmax_t data = 0;
     for(int i = 0; i < length; i++) {
-      data |= (uintmax)read() << (i << 3);
+      data |= (uintmax_t)read() << (i << 3);
     }
     return data;
   }
 
-  auto readm(uint length = 1) -> uintmax {
-    uintmax data = 0;
+  auto readm(uint length = 1) -> uintmax_t {
+    uintmax_t data = 0;
     while(length--) {
       data <<= 8;
       data |= read();
@@ -164,14 +164,14 @@ struct file : inode, varint {
     if(file_offset > file_size) file_size = file_offset;
   }
 
-  auto writel(uintmax data, uint length = 1) -> void {
+  auto writel(uintmax_t data, uint length = 1) -> void {
     while(length--) {
       write(data);
       data >>= 8;
     }
   }
 
-  auto writem(uintmax data, uint length = 1) -> void {
+  auto writem(uintmax_t data, uint length = 1) -> void {
     for(int i = length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
       write(data >> (i << 3));
     }
@@ -200,7 +200,7 @@ struct file : inode, varint {
     if(!fp) return;  //file not open
     buffer_flush();
 
-    intmax req_offset = file_offset;
+    intmax_t req_offset = file_offset;
     switch(index_) {
     case index::absolute: req_offset  = offset; break;
     case index::relative: req_offset += offset; break;
diff --git a/nall/http/response.hpp b/nall/http/response.hpp
index 3e4b315a..b90a258e 100644
--- a/nall/http/response.hpp
+++ b/nall/http/response.hpp
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ auto Response::setHead() -> bool {
   else if(response.ibeginsWith("HTTP/1.1 ")) response.itrimLeft("HTTP/1.1 ", 1L);
   else return false;
 
-  setResponseType(natural(response));
+  setResponseType(response.natural());
 
   for(auto& header : headers) {
     if(header.beginsWith(" ") || header.beginsWith("\t")) continue;
diff --git a/nall/http/role.hpp b/nall/http/role.hpp
index 29eaea8b..57c083ef 100644
--- a/nall/http/role.hpp
+++ b/nall/http/role.hpp
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ auto Role::download(signed fd, Message& message) -> bool {
 
       if(chunk.endsWith("\r\n") || chunk.endsWith("\n")) {
         chunkReceived = true;
-        chunkLength = hex(chunk);
+        chunkLength = chunk.hex();
         if(chunkLength == 0) break;
         chunk.reset();
       }
diff --git a/nall/posix/service.hpp b/nall/posix/service.hpp
index a8e1ed4f..0ce155ba 100644
--- a/nall/posix/service.hpp
+++ b/nall/posix/service.hpp
@@ -31,29 +31,29 @@ auto service::command(const string& name, const string& command) -> bool {
     "  stop    : stop service if it is running\n"
     "  remove  : remove semaphore lock if service crashed\n"
     "  {value} : send custom command to service\n"
-    "", format{name}), false;
+    "", string_format{name}), false;
 
   if(shared.open(name, 4096)) {
     if(command == "start") {
-      print("[{0}] already started\n", format{name});
+      print("[{0}] already started\n", string_format{name});
     } else if(command == "status") {
-      print("[{0}] running\n", format{name});
+      print("[{0}] running\n", string_format{name});
     }
     if(auto data = shared.acquire()) {
-      if(command == "stop") print("[{0}] stopped\n", format{name});
+      if(command == "stop") print("[{0}] stopped\n", string_format{name});
       memory::copy(data, command.data(), min(command.size(), 4096));
       shared.release();
     }
     if(command == "remove") {
       shared.remove();
-      print("[{0}] removed\n", format{name});
+      print("[{0}] removed\n", string_format{name});
     }
     return false;
   }
 
   if(command == "start") {
     if(shared.create(name, 4096)) {
-      print("[{0}] started\n", format{name});
+      print("[{0}] started\n", string_format{name});
       auto pid = fork();
       if(pid == 0) {
         signal(SIGHUP, SIG_IGN);
@@ -63,13 +63,13 @@ auto service::command(const string& name, const string& command) -> bool {
       }
       shared.close();
     } else {
-      print("[{0}] start failed ({1})\n", format{name, strerror(errno)});
+      print("[{0}] start failed ({1})\n", string_format{name, strerror(errno)});
     }
     return false;
   }
 
   if(command == "status") {
-    print("[{0}] stopped\n", format{name});
+    print("[{0}] stopped\n", string_format{name});
     return false;
   }
 
diff --git a/nall/primitives.hpp b/nall/primitives.hpp
index 5c08e443..b6c27602 100644
--- a/nall/primitives.hpp
+++ b/nall/primitives.hpp
@@ -79,15 +79,15 @@ template<uint Bits> struct Natural {
   inline auto bit(uint index) -> Reference { return {*this, index, index}; }
   inline auto byte(uint index) -> Reference { return {*this, index * 8 + 0, index * 8 + 7}; }
 
-  inline auto clamp(uint bits) -> uintmax {
-    const uintmax b = 1ull << (bits - 1);
-    const uintmax m = b * 2 - 1;
+  inline auto clamp(uint bits) -> uintmax_t {
+    const uintmax_t b = 1ull << (bits - 1);
+    const uintmax_t m = b * 2 - 1;
     return data < m ? data : m;
   }
 
-  inline auto clip(uint bits) -> uintmax {
-    const uintmax b = 1ull << (bits - 1);
-    const uintmax m = b * 2 - 1;
+  inline auto clip(uint bits) -> uintmax_t {
+    const uintmax_t b = 1ull << (bits - 1);
+    const uintmax_t m = b * 2 - 1;
     return data & m;
   }
 
@@ -161,15 +161,15 @@ template<uint Bits> struct Integer {
   inline auto bit(uint index) -> Reference { return {*this, index, index}; }
   inline auto byte(uint index) -> Reference { return {*this, index * 8 + 0, index * 8 + 7}; }
 
-  inline auto clamp(uint bits) -> intmax {
-    const intmax b = 1ull << (bits - 1);
-    const intmax m = b - 1;
+  inline auto clamp(uint bits) -> intmax_t {
+    const intmax_t b = 1ull << (bits - 1);
+    const intmax_t m = b - 1;
     return data > m ? m : data < -b ? -b : data;
   }
 
-  inline auto clip(uint bits) -> intmax {
-    const uintmax b = 1ull << (bits - 1);
-    const uintmax m = b * 2 - 1;
+  inline auto clip(uint bits) -> intmax_t {
+    const uintmax_t b = 1ull << (bits - 1);
+    const uintmax_t m = b * 2 - 1;
     return ((data & m) ^ b) - b;
   }
 
@@ -185,8 +185,8 @@ template<uint Bits> struct Real {
   using type =
     type_if<expression<Bits == 32>, float32_t,
     type_if<expression<Bits == 64>, float64_t,
-    type_if<expression<Bits == 80>, float80_t,
-    void>>>;
+  //type_if<expression<Bits == 80>, float80_t,
+    void>>;
 
   inline Real() : data(0.0) {}
   template<typename T> inline Real(const T& value) : data((type)value) {}
@@ -215,9 +215,8 @@ private:
 }
 
 using boolean = nall::Boolean;
-//note: these conflict with nall/atoi.hpp functions
-//using integer = nall::Integer<sizeof( int) * 8>;
-//using natural = nall::Natural<sizeof(uint) * 8>;
+using integer = nall::Integer<sizeof( int) * 8>;
+using natural = nall::Natural<sizeof(uint) * 8>;
 
 using  int1 = nall::Integer< 1>;
 using  int2 = nall::Integer< 2>;
@@ -351,4 +350,4 @@ using uint64 = nall::Natural<64>;
 
 using float32 = nall::Real<32>;
 using float64 = nall::Real<64>;
-using float80 = nall::Real<80>;
+//using float80 = nall::Real<80>;
diff --git a/nall/serializer.hpp b/nall/serializer.hpp
index bb7d8621..e883647b 100644
--- a/nall/serializer.hpp
+++ b/nall/serializer.hpp
@@ -63,10 +63,10 @@ struct serializer {
   template<typename T> auto integer(T& value) -> serializer& {
     enum { size = std::is_same<bool, T>::value ? 1 : sizeof(T) };
     if(_mode == Save) {
-      for(uint n = 0; n < size; n++) _data[_size++] = (uintmax)value >> (n << 3);
+      for(uint n = 0; n < size; n++) _data[_size++] = (uintmax_t)value >> (n << 3);
     } else if(_mode == Load) {
       value = 0;
-      for(uint n = 0; n < size; n++) value |= (uintmax)_data[_size++] << (n << 3);
+      for(uint n = 0; n < size; n++) value |= (uintmax_t)_data[_size++] << (n << 3);
     } else if(_mode == Size) {
       _size += size;
     }
diff --git a/nall/stdint.hpp b/nall/stdint.hpp
index 250b72cb..67408f31 100644
--- a/nall/stdint.hpp
+++ b/nall/stdint.hpp
@@ -33,7 +33,8 @@
 
 using float32_t = float;
 using float64_t = double;
-using float80_t = long double;
+//note: long double size is not reliable across platforms
+//using float80_t = long double;
 
 static_assert(sizeof(int8_t)   == 1, "int8_t is not of the correct size" );
 static_assert(sizeof(int16_t)  == 2, "int16_t is not of the correct size");
@@ -47,12 +48,6 @@ static_assert(sizeof(uint64_t) == 8, "int64_t is not of the correct size");
 
 static_assert(sizeof(float)       >=  4, "float32_t is not of the correct size");
 static_assert(sizeof(double)      >=  8, "float64_t is not of the correct size");
-static_assert(sizeof(long double) >= 10, "float80_t is not of the correct size");
-
-using intmax = intmax_t;
-using intptr = intptr_t;
-
-using uintmax = uintmax_t;
-using uintptr = uintptr_t;
+//static_assert(sizeof(long double) >= 10, "float80_t is not of the correct size");
 
 using uint = unsigned int;
diff --git a/nall/string.hpp b/nall/string.hpp
index 63e71125..684643ca 100644
--- a/nall/string.hpp
+++ b/nall/string.hpp
@@ -24,8 +24,12 @@
 namespace nall {
 
 struct string;
-struct format;
-struct lstring;
+struct string_view;
+struct string_vector;
+struct string_format;
+
+//legacy naming convention
+using lstring = string_vector;
 
 struct string_view {
   inline string_view();
@@ -61,18 +65,19 @@ template<typename T> struct stringify;
 //format.hpp
 template<typename... P> inline auto print(P&&...) -> void;
 template<typename... P> inline auto print(FILE*, P&&...) -> void;
-inline auto integer(intmax value, long precision = 0, char padchar = '0') -> string;
-inline auto natural(uintmax value, long precision = 0, char padchar = '0') -> string;
-inline auto hex(uintmax value, long precision = 0, char padchar = '0') -> string;
-inline auto octal(uintmax value, long precision = 0, char padchar = '0') -> string;
-inline auto binary(uintmax value, long precision = 0, char padchar = '0') -> string;
+template<typename T> inline auto numeral(T value, long precision = 0, char padchar = '0') -> string;
+//inline auto integer(intmax_t value, long precision = 0, char padchar = '0') -> string;
+//inline auto natural(uintmax_t value, long precision = 0, char padchar = '0') -> string;
+inline auto hex(uintmax_t value, long precision = 0, char padchar = '0') -> string;
+inline auto octal(uintmax_t value, long precision = 0, char padchar = '0') -> string;
+inline auto binary(uintmax_t value, long precision = 0, char padchar = '0') -> string;
 template<typename T> inline auto pointer(const T* value, long precision = 0) -> string;
-inline auto pointer(uintptr value, long precision = 0) -> string;
-inline auto real(long double value) -> string;
+inline auto pointer(uintptr_t value, long precision = 0) -> string;
+//inline auto real(long double value) -> string;
 
 //match.hpp
 inline auto tokenize(const char* s, const char* p) -> bool;
-inline auto tokenize(lstring& list, const char* s, const char* p) -> bool;
+inline auto tokenize(string_vector& list, const char* s, const char* p) -> bool;
 
 //path.hpp
 inline auto pathname(string_view self) -> string;
@@ -85,10 +90,9 @@ inline auto suffixname(string_view self) -> string;
 
 //utility.hpp
 inline auto slice(string_view self, int offset = 0, int length = -1) -> string;
-
-inline auto integer(char* result, intmax value) -> char*;
-inline auto natural(char* result, uintmax value) -> char*;
-inline auto real(char* str, long double value) -> uint;
+inline auto fromInteger(char* result, intmax_t value) -> char*;
+inline auto fromNatural(char* result, uintmax_t value) -> char*;
+inline auto fromReal(char* str, long double value) -> uint;
 
 struct string {
   using type = string;
@@ -179,15 +183,16 @@ public:
   auto end() const -> const char* { return &data()[size()]; }
 
   //atoi.hpp
-  inline auto integer() const -> intmax;
-  inline auto natural() const -> uintmax;
+  inline auto integer() const -> intmax_t;
+  inline auto natural() const -> uintmax_t;
+  inline auto hex() const -> uintmax_t;
   inline auto real() const -> double;
 
   //core.hpp
   inline auto operator[](int) const -> const char&;
   template<typename... P> inline auto assign(P&&...) -> type&;
   template<typename T, typename... P> inline auto append(const T&, P&&...) -> type&;
-  template<typename... P> inline auto append(const nall::format&, P&&...) -> type&;
+  template<typename... P> inline auto append(const nall::string_format&, P&&...) -> type&;
   inline auto append() -> type&;
   template<typename T> inline auto _append(const stringify<T>&) -> string&;
   inline auto length() const -> uint;
@@ -209,7 +214,7 @@ public:
   inline auto ifindFrom(int offset, string_view source) const -> maybe<uint>;
 
   //format.hpp
-  inline auto format(const nall::format& params) -> type&;
+  inline auto format(const nall::string_format& params) -> type&;
 
   //compare.hpp
   template<bool> inline static auto _compare(const char*, uint, const char*, uint) -> int;
@@ -250,10 +255,10 @@ public:
   inline auto iqreplace(string_view from, string_view to, long limit = LONG_MAX) -> type&;
 
   //split.hpp
-  inline auto split(string_view key, long limit = LONG_MAX) const -> lstring;
-  inline auto isplit(string_view key, long limit = LONG_MAX) const -> lstring;
-  inline auto qsplit(string_view key, long limit = LONG_MAX) const -> lstring;
-  inline auto iqsplit(string_view key, long limit = LONG_MAX) const -> lstring;
+  inline auto split(string_view key, long limit = LONG_MAX) const -> string_vector;
+  inline auto isplit(string_view key, long limit = LONG_MAX) const -> string_vector;
+  inline auto qsplit(string_view key, long limit = LONG_MAX) const -> string_vector;
+  inline auto iqsplit(string_view key, long limit = LONG_MAX) const -> string_vector;
 
   //trim.hpp
   inline auto trim(string_view lhs, string_view rhs, long limit = LONG_MAX) -> type&;
@@ -278,21 +283,21 @@ public:
   inline auto size(int length, char fill = ' ') -> type&;
 };
 
-struct lstring : vector<string> {
-  using type = lstring;
+struct string_vector : vector<string> {
+  using type = string_vector;
 
-  lstring(const lstring& source) { vector::operator=(source); }
-  lstring(lstring& source) { vector::operator=(source); }
-  lstring(lstring&& source) { vector::operator=(move(source)); }
-  template<typename... P> lstring(P&&... p) { append(forward<P>(p)...); }
+  string_vector(const string_vector& source) { vector::operator=(source); }
+  string_vector(string_vector& source) { vector::operator=(source); }
+  string_vector(string_vector&& source) { vector::operator=(move(source)); }
+  template<typename... P> string_vector(P&&... p) { append(forward<P>(p)...); }
 
   //list.hpp
-  inline auto operator==(const lstring&) const -> bool;
-  inline auto operator!=(const lstring&) const -> bool;
+  inline auto operator==(const string_vector&) const -> bool;
+  inline auto operator!=(const string_vector&) const -> bool;
 
-  inline auto operator=(const lstring& source) -> type& { return vector::operator=(source), *this; }
-  inline auto operator=(lstring& source) -> type& { return vector::operator=(source), *this; }
-  inline auto operator=(lstring&& source) -> type& { return vector::operator=(move(source)), *this; }
+  inline auto operator=(const string_vector& source) -> type& { return vector::operator=(source), *this; }
+  inline auto operator=(string_vector& source) -> type& { return vector::operator=(source), *this; }
+  inline auto operator=(string_vector&& source) -> type& { return vector::operator=(move(source)), *this; }
 
   inline auto isort() -> type&;
 
@@ -301,18 +306,18 @@ struct lstring : vector<string> {
 
   inline auto find(string_view source) const -> maybe<uint>;
   inline auto ifind(string_view source) const -> maybe<uint>;
-  inline auto match(string_view pattern) const -> lstring;
+  inline auto match(string_view pattern) const -> string_vector;
   inline auto merge(string_view separator) const -> string;
   inline auto strip() -> type&;
 
   //split.hpp
-  template<bool, bool> inline auto _split(string_view, string_view, long) -> lstring&;
+  template<bool, bool> inline auto _split(string_view, string_view, long) -> type&;
 };
 
-struct format : vector<string> {
-  using type = format;
+struct string_format : vector<string> {
+  using type = string_format;
 
-  template<typename... P> format(P&&... p) { reserve(sizeof...(p)); append(forward<P>(p)...); }
+  template<typename... P> string_format(P&&... p) { reserve(sizeof...(p)); append(forward<P>(p)...); }
   template<typename T, typename... P> inline auto append(const T&, P&&... p) -> type&;
   inline auto append() -> type&;
 };
diff --git a/nall/string/atoi.hpp b/nall/string/atoi.hpp
index 7ee5de52..3dd1f772 100644
--- a/nall/string/atoi.hpp
+++ b/nall/string/atoi.hpp
@@ -2,16 +2,20 @@
 
 namespace nall {
 
-auto string::integer() const -> intmax {
-  return nall::integer(data());
+auto string::integer() const -> intmax_t {
+  return toInteger(data());
 }
 
-auto string::natural() const -> uintmax {
-  return nall::natural(data());
+auto string::natural() const -> uintmax_t {
+  return toNatural(data());
+}
+
+auto string::hex() const -> uintmax_t {
+  return toHex(data());
 }
 
 auto string::real() const -> double {
-  return nall::real(data());
+  return toReal(data());
 }
 
 }
diff --git a/nall/string/cast.hpp b/nall/string/cast.hpp
index 2c68071e..88f0482c 100644
--- a/nall/string/cast.hpp
+++ b/nall/string/cast.hpp
@@ -33,42 +33,42 @@ template<> struct stringify<char> {
 //signed integers
 
 template<> struct stringify<signed char> {
-  stringify(signed char source) { integer(_data, source); }
+  stringify(signed char source) { fromInteger(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[2 + sizeof(signed char) * 3];
 };
 
 template<> struct stringify<signed short> {
-  stringify(signed short source) { integer(_data, source); }
+  stringify(signed short source) { fromInteger(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[2 + sizeof(signed short) * 3];
 };
 
 template<> struct stringify<signed int> {
-  stringify(signed int source) { integer(_data, source); }
+  stringify(signed int source) { fromInteger(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[2 + sizeof(signed int) * 3];
 };
 
 template<> struct stringify<signed long> {
-  stringify(signed long source) { integer(_data, source); }
+  stringify(signed long source) { fromInteger(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[2 + sizeof(signed long) * 3];
 };
 
 template<> struct stringify<signed long long> {
-  stringify(signed long long source) { integer(_data, source); }
+  stringify(signed long long source) { fromInteger(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[2 + sizeof(signed long long) * 3];
 };
 
 template<uint Bits> struct stringify<Integer<Bits>> {
-  stringify(Integer<Bits> source) { integer(_data, source); }
+  stringify(Integer<Bits> source) { fromInteger(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[2 + sizeof(int64_t) * 3];
@@ -77,42 +77,42 @@ template<uint Bits> struct stringify<Integer<Bits>> {
 //unsigned integers
 
 template<> struct stringify<unsigned char> {
-  stringify(unsigned char source) { natural(_data, source); }
+  stringify(unsigned char source) { fromNatural(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[1 + sizeof(unsigned char) * 3];
 };
 
 template<> struct stringify<unsigned short> {
-  stringify(unsigned short source) { natural(_data, source); }
+  stringify(unsigned short source) { fromNatural(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[1 + sizeof(unsigned short) * 3];
 };
 
 template<> struct stringify<unsigned int> {
-  stringify(unsigned int source) { natural(_data, source); }
+  stringify(unsigned int source) { fromNatural(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[1 + sizeof(unsigned int) * 3];
 };
 
 template<> struct stringify<unsigned long> {
-  stringify(unsigned long source) { natural(_data, source); }
+  stringify(unsigned long source) { fromNatural(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[1 + sizeof(unsigned long) * 3];
 };
 
 template<> struct stringify<unsigned long long> {
-  stringify(unsigned long long source) { natural(_data, source); }
+  stringify(unsigned long long source) { fromNatural(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[1 + sizeof(unsigned long long) * 3];
 };
 
 template<uint Bits> struct stringify<Natural<Bits>> {
-  stringify(Natural<Bits> source) { natural(_data, source); }
+  stringify(Natural<Bits> source) { fromNatural(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[1 + sizeof(uint64_t) * 3];
@@ -121,28 +121,28 @@ template<uint Bits> struct stringify<Natural<Bits>> {
 //floating-point
 
 template<> struct stringify<float> {
-  stringify(float source) { real(_data, source); }
+  stringify(float source) { fromReal(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[256];
 };
 
 template<> struct stringify<double> {
-  stringify(double source) { real(_data, source); }
+  stringify(double source) { fromReal(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[256];
 };
 
 template<> struct stringify<long double> {
-  stringify(long double source) { real(_data, source); }
+  stringify(long double source) { fromReal(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[256];
 };
 
 template<uint Bits> struct stringify<Real<Bits>> {
-  stringify(Real<Bits> source) { real(_data, source); }
+  stringify(Real<Bits> source) { fromReal(_data, source); }
   auto data() const -> const char* { return _data; }
   auto size() const -> uint { return strlen(_data); }
   char _data[256];
diff --git a/nall/string/core.hpp b/nall/string/core.hpp
index 7122c5f6..c0a2f85d 100644
--- a/nall/string/core.hpp
+++ b/nall/string/core.hpp
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ template<typename T, typename... P> auto string::append(const T& value, P&&... p
   return append(forward<P>(p)...);
 }
 
-template<typename... P> auto string::append(const nall::format& value, P&&... p) -> string& {
+template<typename... P> auto string::append(const nall::string_format& value, P&&... p) -> string& {
   format(value);
   return append(forward<P>(p)...);
 }
diff --git a/nall/string/datetime.hpp b/nall/string/datetime.hpp
index 8469699f..9d24230c 100644
--- a/nall/string/datetime.hpp
+++ b/nall/string/datetime.hpp
@@ -6,9 +6,9 @@ auto string::date(time_t timestamp) -> string {
   if(timestamp == 0) timestamp = ::time(nullptr);
   tm* info = localtime(&timestamp);
   return {
-    nall::natural(1900 + info->tm_year, 4L), "-",
-    nall::natural(1 + info->tm_mon, 2L), "-",
-    nall::natural(info->tm_mday, 2L)
+    numeral(1900 + info->tm_year, 4L), "-",
+    numeral(1 + info->tm_mon, 2L), "-",
+    numeral(info->tm_mday, 2L)
   };
 }
 
@@ -16,9 +16,9 @@ auto string::time(time_t timestamp) -> string {
   if(timestamp == 0) timestamp = ::time(nullptr);
   tm* info = localtime(&timestamp);
   return {
-    nall::natural(info->tm_hour, 2L), ":",
-    nall::natural(info->tm_min, 2L), ":",
-    nall::natural(info->tm_sec, 2L)
+    numeral(info->tm_hour, 2L), ":",
+    numeral(info->tm_min, 2L), ":",
+    numeral(info->tm_sec, 2L)
   };
 }
 
diff --git a/nall/string/eval/evaluator.hpp b/nall/string/eval/evaluator.hpp
index 184f8eb4..5ed01f12 100644
--- a/nall/string/eval/evaluator.hpp
+++ b/nall/string/eval/evaluator.hpp
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ inline auto evaluateExpression(Node* node) -> string {
 }
 
 inline auto evaluateInteger(Node* node) -> int64_t {
-  if(node->type == Node::Type::Literal) return nall::integer(node->literal);
+  if(node->type == Node::Type::Literal) return toInteger(node->literal);
 
   #define p(n) evaluateInteger(node->link[n])
   switch(node->type) {
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ inline auto integer(const string& expression) -> maybe<int64_t> {
 }
 
 inline auto evaluateReal(Node* node) -> long double {
-  if(node->type == Node::Type::Literal) return nall::real(node->literal);
+  if(node->type == Node::Type::Literal) return toReal(node->literal);
 
   #define p(n) evaluateReal(node->link[n])
   switch(node->type) {
diff --git a/nall/string/format.hpp b/nall/string/format.hpp
index 71c8a1a4..78a61eeb 100644
--- a/nall/string/format.hpp
+++ b/nall/string/format.hpp
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ namespace nall {
 //nall::format is a vector<string> of parameters that can be applied to a string
 //each {#} token will be replaced with its appropriate format parameter
 
-auto string::format(const nall::format& params) -> type& {
+auto string::format(const nall::string_format& params) -> type& {
   auto size = (int)this->size();
   auto data = (char*)memory::allocate(size);
   memory::copy(data, this->data(), size);
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ auto string::format(const nall::format& params) -> type& {
     };
     if(!isNumeric(&data[x + 1], &data[y - 1])) { x++; continue; }
 
-    uint index = nall::natural(&data[x + 1]);
+    uint index = toNatural(&data[x + 1]);
     if(index >= params.size()) { x++; continue; }
 
     uint sourceSize = y - x;
@@ -59,12 +59,12 @@ auto string::format(const nall::format& params) -> type& {
   return *this;
 }
 
-template<typename T, typename... P> auto format::append(const T& value, P&&... p) -> format& {
+template<typename T, typename... P> auto string_format::append(const T& value, P&&... p) -> string_format& {
   vector<string>::append(value);
   return append(forward<P>(p)...);
 }
 
-auto format::append() -> format& {
+auto string_format::append() -> string_format& {
   return *this;
 }
 
@@ -78,9 +78,10 @@ template<typename... P> auto print(FILE* fp, P&&... p) -> void {
   fwrite(s.data(), 1, s.size(), fp);
 }
 
-auto integer(intmax value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
+/*
+auto integer(intmax_t value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
   string buffer;
-  buffer.resize(1 + sizeof(intmax) * 3);
+  buffer.resize(1 + sizeof(intmax_t) * 3);
   char* p = buffer.get();
 
   bool negative = value < 0;
@@ -97,9 +98,9 @@ auto integer(intmax value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
   return buffer;
 }
 
-auto natural(uintmax value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
+auto natural(uintmax_t value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
   string buffer;
-  buffer.resize(sizeof(uintmax) * 3);
+  buffer.resize(sizeof(uintmax_t) * 3);
   char* p = buffer.get();
 
   uint size = 0;
@@ -112,10 +113,17 @@ auto natural(uintmax value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
   if(precision) buffer.size(precision, padchar);
   return buffer;
 }
+*/
 
-auto hex(uintmax value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
+template<typename T> auto numeral(T value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
+  string buffer{value};
+  if(precision) buffer.size(precision, padchar);
+  return buffer;
+}
+
+auto hex(uintmax_t value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
   string buffer;
-  buffer.resize(sizeof(uintmax) * 2);
+  buffer.resize(sizeof(uintmax_t) * 2);
   char* p = buffer.get();
 
   uint size = 0;
@@ -130,9 +138,9 @@ auto hex(uintmax value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
   return buffer;
 }
 
-auto octal(uintmax value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
+auto octal(uintmax_t value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
   string buffer;
-  buffer.resize(sizeof(uintmax) * 3);
+  buffer.resize(sizeof(uintmax_t) * 3);
   char* p = buffer.get();
 
   uint size = 0;
@@ -146,9 +154,9 @@ auto octal(uintmax value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
   return buffer;
 }
 
-auto binary(uintmax value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
+auto binary(uintmax_t value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
   string buffer;
-  buffer.resize(sizeof(uintmax) * 8);
+  buffer.resize(sizeof(uintmax_t) * 8);
   char* p = buffer.get();
 
   uint size = 0;
@@ -164,19 +172,21 @@ auto binary(uintmax value, long precision, char padchar) -> string {
 
 template<typename T> auto pointer(const T* value, long precision) -> string {
   if(value == nullptr) return "(nullptr)";
-  return {"0x", hex((uintptr)value, precision)};
+  return {"0x", hex((uintptr_t)value, precision)};
 }
 
-auto pointer(uintptr value, long precision) -> string {
+auto pointer(uintptr_t value, long precision) -> string {
   if(value == 0) return "(nullptr)";
   return {"0x", hex(value, precision)};
 }
 
+/*
 auto real(long double value) -> string {
   string temp;
-  temp.resize(real(nullptr, value));
-  real(temp.get(), value);
+  temp.resize(fromReal(nullptr, value));
+  fromReal(temp.get(), value);
   return temp;
 }
+*/
 
 }
diff --git a/nall/string/list.hpp b/nall/string/list.hpp
index ae741722..72cace5a 100644
--- a/nall/string/list.hpp
+++ b/nall/string/list.hpp
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 namespace nall {
 
-auto lstring::operator==(const lstring& source) const -> bool {
+auto string_vector::operator==(const string_vector& source) const -> bool {
   if(this == &source) return true;
   if(size() != source.size()) return false;
   for(uint n = 0; n < size(); n++) {
@@ -11,50 +11,50 @@ auto lstring::operator==(const lstring& source) const -> bool {
   return true;
 }
 
-auto lstring::operator!=(const lstring& source) const -> bool {
+auto string_vector::operator!=(const string_vector& source) const -> bool {
   return !operator==(source);
 }
 
-auto lstring::isort() -> lstring& {
+auto string_vector::isort() -> type& {
   sort([](const string& x, const string& y) {
     return memory::icompare(x.data(), x.size(), y.data(), y.size()) < 0;
   });
   return *this;
 }
 
-template<typename... P> auto lstring::append(const string& data, P&&... p) -> lstring& {
+template<typename... P> auto string_vector::append(const string& data, P&&... p) -> type& {
   vector::append(data);
   append(forward<P>(p)...);
   return *this;
 }
 
-auto lstring::append() -> lstring& {
+auto string_vector::append() -> type& {
   return *this;
 }
 
-auto lstring::find(string_view source) const -> maybe<uint> {
+auto string_vector::find(string_view source) const -> maybe<uint> {
   for(uint n = 0; n < size(); n++) {
     if(operator[](n).equals(source)) return n;
   }
   return nothing;
 }
 
-auto lstring::ifind(string_view source) const -> maybe<uint> {
+auto string_vector::ifind(string_view source) const -> maybe<uint> {
   for(uint n = 0; n < size(); n++) {
     if(operator[](n).iequals(source)) return n;
   }
   return nothing;
 }
 
-auto lstring::match(string_view pattern) const -> lstring {
-  lstring result;
+auto string_vector::match(string_view pattern) const -> type {
+  string_vector result;
   for(uint n = 0; n < size(); n++) {
     if(operator[](n).match(pattern)) result.append(operator[](n));
   }
   return result;
 }
 
-auto lstring::merge(string_view separator) const -> string {
+auto string_vector::merge(string_view separator) const -> string {
   string output;
   for(uint n = 0; n < size(); n++) {
     output.append(operator[](n));
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ auto lstring::merge(string_view separator) const -> string {
   return output;
 }
 
-auto lstring::strip() -> lstring& {
+auto string_vector::strip() -> type& {
   for(uint n = 0; n < size(); n++) {
     operator[](n).strip();
   }
diff --git a/nall/string/markup/node.hpp b/nall/string/markup/node.hpp
index 875e5769..f1a3a2a8 100644
--- a/nall/string/markup/node.hpp
+++ b/nall/string/markup/node.hpp
@@ -59,8 +59,8 @@ struct Node {
 
   auto text() const -> string { return value().strip(); }
   auto boolean() const -> bool { return text() == "true"; }
-  auto integer() const -> intmax { return text().integer(); }
-  auto natural() const -> uintmax { return text().natural(); }
+  auto integer() const -> intmax_t { return text().integer(); }
+  auto natural() const -> uintmax_t { return text().natural(); }
   auto real() const -> double { return text().real(); }
 
   auto setName(const string& name = "") -> Node& { shared->_name = name; return *this; }
diff --git a/nall/string/match.hpp b/nall/string/match.hpp
index 3d1bebb1..ecd9fb4c 100644
--- a/nall/string/match.hpp
+++ b/nall/string/match.hpp
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ auto tokenize(const char* s, const char* p) -> bool {
   return !*p;
 }
 
-auto tokenize(lstring& list, const char* s, const char* p) -> bool {
+auto tokenize(string_vector& list, const char* s, const char* p) -> bool {
   while(*s) {
     if(*p == '*') {
       const char* b = s;
diff --git a/nall/string/split.hpp b/nall/string/split.hpp
index ef5b8f31..a8520111 100644
--- a/nall/string/split.hpp
+++ b/nall/string/split.hpp
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 namespace nall {
 
 template<bool Insensitive, bool Quoted>
-auto lstring::_split(string_view source, string_view find, long limit) -> lstring& {
+auto string_vector::_split(string_view source, string_view find, long limit) -> string_vector& {
   reset();
   if(limit <= 0 || find.size() == 0) return *this;
 
@@ -33,9 +33,9 @@ auto lstring::_split(string_view source, string_view find, long limit) -> lstrin
   return *this;
 }
 
-auto string::split(string_view on, long limit) const -> lstring { return lstring()._split<0, 0>(*this, on, limit); }
-auto string::isplit(string_view on, long limit) const -> lstring { return lstring()._split<1, 0>(*this, on, limit); }
-auto string::qsplit(string_view on, long limit) const -> lstring { return lstring()._split<0, 1>(*this, on, limit); }
-auto string::iqsplit(string_view on, long limit) const -> lstring { return lstring()._split<1, 1>(*this, on, limit); }
+auto string::split(string_view on, long limit) const -> string_vector { return string_vector()._split<0, 0>(*this, on, limit); }
+auto string::isplit(string_view on, long limit) const -> string_vector { return string_vector()._split<1, 0>(*this, on, limit); }
+auto string::qsplit(string_view on, long limit) const -> string_vector { return string_vector()._split<0, 1>(*this, on, limit); }
+auto string::iqsplit(string_view on, long limit) const -> string_vector { return string_vector()._split<1, 1>(*this, on, limit); }
 
 }
diff --git a/nall/string/utility.hpp b/nall/string/utility.hpp
index 00a52966..983d259c 100644
--- a/nall/string/utility.hpp
+++ b/nall/string/utility.hpp
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ auto slice(string_view self, int offset, int length) -> string {
   return result;
 }
 
-auto integer(char* result, intmax value) -> char* {
+auto fromInteger(char* result, intmax_t value) -> char* {
   bool negative = value < 0;
   if(negative) value = -value;
 
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@ auto integer(char* result, intmax value) -> char* {
   return result;
 }
 
-auto natural(char* result, uintmax value) -> char* {
+auto fromNatural(char* result, uintmax_t value) -> char* {
   char buffer[64];
   uint size = 0;
 
@@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ auto natural(char* result, uintmax value) -> char* {
 //using sprintf is certainly not the most ideal method to convert
 //a double to a string ... but attempting to parse a double by
 //hand, digit-by-digit, results in subtle rounding errors.
-auto real(char* result, long double value) -> uint {
+auto fromReal(char* result, long double value) -> uint {
   char buffer[256];
   #ifdef _WIN32
   //Windows C-runtime does not support long double via sprintf()
diff --git a/nall/thread.hpp b/nall/thread.hpp
index fd33e2d5..3a76e431 100644
--- a/nall/thread.hpp
+++ b/nall/thread.hpp
@@ -19,13 +19,13 @@ namespace nall {
 struct thread {
   inline auto join() -> void;
 
-  static inline auto create(const function<void (uintptr)>& callback, uintptr parameter = 0, uint stacksize = 0) -> thread;
+  static inline auto create(const function<void (uintptr_t)>& callback, uintptr_t parameter = 0, uint stacksize = 0) -> thread;
   static inline auto detach() -> void;
   static inline auto exit() -> void;
 
   struct context {
-    function<auto (uintptr) -> void> callback;
-    uintptr parameter = 0;
+    function<auto (uintptr_t) -> void> callback;
+    uintptr_t parameter = 0;
   };
 
 private:
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ auto thread::join() -> void {
   pthread_join(handle, nullptr);
 }
 
-auto thread::create(const function<void (uintptr)>& callback, uintptr parameter, uint stacksize) -> thread {
+auto thread::create(const function<void (uintptr_t)>& callback, uintptr_t parameter, uint stacksize) -> thread {
   thread instance;
 
   auto context = new thread::context;
@@ -76,13 +76,13 @@ struct thread {
   inline ~thread();
   inline auto join() -> void;
 
-  static inline auto create(const function<void (uintptr)>& callback, uintptr parameter = 0, uint stacksize = 0) -> thread;
+  static inline auto create(const function<void (uintptr_t)>& callback, uintptr_t parameter = 0, uint stacksize = 0) -> thread;
   static inline auto detach() -> void;
   static inline auto exit() -> void;
 
   struct context {
-    function<auto (uintptr) -> void> callback;
-    uintptr parameter = 0;
+    function<auto (uintptr_t) -> void> callback;
+    uintptr_t parameter = 0;
   };
 
 private:
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@ auto thread::join() -> void {
   }
 }
 
-auto thread::create(const function<void (uintptr)>& callback, uintptr parameter, uint stacksize) -> thread {
+auto thread::create(const function<void (uintptr_t)>& callback, uintptr_t parameter, uint stacksize) -> thread {
   thread instance;
 
   auto context = new thread::context;
diff --git a/nall/varint.hpp b/nall/varint.hpp
index ee18a036..f684bf4c 100644
--- a/nall/varint.hpp
+++ b/nall/varint.hpp
@@ -10,8 +10,8 @@ struct varint {
   virtual auto read() -> uint8_t = 0;
   virtual auto write(uint8_t) -> void = 0;
 
-  auto readvu() -> uintmax {
-    uintmax data = 0, shift = 1;
+  auto readvu() -> uintmax_t {
+    uintmax_t data = 0, shift = 1;
     while(true) {
       uint8_t x = read();
       data += (x & 0x7f) * shift;
@@ -22,15 +22,15 @@ struct varint {
     return data;
   }
 
-  auto readvs() -> intmax {
-    uintmax data = readvu();
+  auto readvs() -> intmax_t {
+    uintmax_t data = readvu();
     bool negate = data & 1;
     data >>= 1;
     if(negate) data = ~data;
     return data;
   }
 
-  auto writevu(uintmax data) -> void {
+  auto writevu(uintmax_t data) -> void {
     while(true) {
       uint8_t x = data & 0x7f;
       data >>= 7;
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ struct varint {
     }
   }
 
-  auto writevs(intmax data) -> void {
+  auto writevs(intmax_t data) -> void {
     bool negate = data < 0;
     if(negate) data = ~data;
     data = (data << 1) | negate;
diff --git a/nall/vfs/fs/file.hpp b/nall/vfs/fs/file.hpp
index d899a434..d52d3879 100644
--- a/nall/vfs/fs/file.hpp
+++ b/nall/vfs/fs/file.hpp
@@ -11,15 +11,15 @@ struct file : vfs::file {
     return instance;
   }
 
-  auto size() const -> uintmax override {
+  auto size() const -> uintmax_t override {
     return _fp.size();
   }
 
-  auto offset() const -> uintmax override {
+  auto offset() const -> uintmax_t override {
     return _fp.offset();
   }
 
-  auto seek(intmax offset_, index index_) -> void override {
+  auto seek(intmax_t offset_, index index_) -> void override {
     _fp.seek(offset_, (nall::file::index)index_);
   }
 
diff --git a/nall/vfs/memory/file.hpp b/nall/vfs/memory/file.hpp
index 4f9afa27..02bdcbb0 100644
--- a/nall/vfs/memory/file.hpp
+++ b/nall/vfs/memory/file.hpp
@@ -5,18 +5,18 @@ namespace nall { namespace vfs { namespace memory {
 struct file : vfs::file {
   ~file() { delete[] _data; }
 
-  static auto open(const uint8_t* data, uintmax size) -> vfs::shared::file {
+  static auto open(const uint8_t* data, uintmax_t size) -> vfs::shared::file {
     auto instance = shared_pointer<file>{new file};
     instance->_open(data, size);
     return instance;
   }
 
-  auto size() const -> uintmax override { return _size; }
-  auto offset() const -> uintmax override { return _offset; }
+  auto size() const -> uintmax_t override { return _size; }
+  auto offset() const -> uintmax_t override { return _offset; }
 
-  auto seek(intmax offset, index mode) -> void override {
-    if(mode == index::absolute) _offset = (uintmax)offset;
-    if(mode == index::relative) _offset += (intmax)offset;
+  auto seek(intmax_t offset, index mode) -> void override {
+    if(mode == index::absolute) _offset = (uintmax_t)offset;
+    if(mode == index::relative) _offset += (intmax_t)offset;
   }
 
   auto read() -> uint8_t override {
@@ -34,15 +34,15 @@ private:
   file(const file&) = delete;
   auto operator=(const file&) -> file& = delete;
 
-  auto _open(const uint8_t* data, uintmax size) -> void {
+  auto _open(const uint8_t* data, uintmax_t size) -> void {
     _size = size;
     _data = new uint8_t[size];
     nall::memory::copy(_data, data, size);
   }
 
   uint8_t* _data = nullptr;
-  uintmax _size = 0;
-  uintmax _offset = 0;
+  uintmax_t _size = 0;
+  uintmax_t _offset = 0;
 };
 
 }}}
diff --git a/nall/vfs/vfs.hpp b/nall/vfs/vfs.hpp
index b1589bbf..69449217 100644
--- a/nall/vfs/vfs.hpp
+++ b/nall/vfs/vfs.hpp
@@ -11,10 +11,10 @@ struct file {
 
   virtual ~file() = default;
 
-  virtual auto size() const -> uintmax = 0;
-  virtual auto offset() const -> uintmax = 0;
+  virtual auto size() const -> uintmax_t = 0;
+  virtual auto offset() const -> uintmax_t = 0;
 
-  virtual auto seek(intmax offset, index = index::absolute) -> void = 0;
+  virtual auto seek(intmax_t offset, index = index::absolute) -> void = 0;
   virtual auto read() -> uint8_t = 0;
   virtual auto write(uint8_t data) -> void = 0;
   virtual auto flush() -> void {}
@@ -23,19 +23,19 @@ struct file {
     return offset() >= size();
   }
 
-  auto read(void* vdata, uintmax bytes) -> void {
+  auto read(void* vdata, uintmax_t bytes) -> void {
     auto data = (uint8_t*)vdata;
     while(bytes--) *data++ = read();
   }
 
-  auto readl(uint bytes) -> uintmax {
-    uintmax data = 0;
-    for(auto n : range(bytes)) data |= (uintmax)read() << n * 8;
+  auto readl(uint bytes) -> uintmax_t {
+    uintmax_t data = 0;
+    for(auto n : range(bytes)) data |= (uintmax_t)read() << n * 8;
     return data;
   }
 
-  auto readm(uint bytes) -> uintmax {
-    uintmax data = 0;
+  auto readm(uint bytes) -> uintmax_t {
+    uintmax_t data = 0;
     for(auto n : range(bytes)) data = data << 8 | read();
     return data;
   }
@@ -47,16 +47,16 @@ struct file {
     return s;
   }
 
-  auto write(const void* vdata, uintmax bytes) -> void {
+  auto write(const void* vdata, uintmax_t bytes) -> void {
     auto data = (const uint8_t*)vdata;
     while(bytes--) write(*data++);
   }
 
-  auto writel(uintmax data, uint bytes) -> void {
+  auto writel(uintmax_t data, uint bytes) -> void {
     for(auto n : range(bytes)) write(data), data >>= 8;
   }
 
-  auto writem(uintmax data, uint bytes) -> void {
+  auto writem(uintmax_t data, uint bytes) -> void {
     for(auto n : rrange(bytes)) write(data >> n * 8);
   }
 
diff --git a/ruby/input/xlib.cpp b/ruby/input/xlib.cpp
index b84c24e3..77919f65 100644
--- a/ruby/input/xlib.cpp
+++ b/ruby/input/xlib.cpp
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ struct InputXlib : Input {
   ~InputXlib() { term(); }
 
   struct Settings {
-    uintptr handle = 0;
+    uintptr_t handle = 0;
   } settings;
 
   auto cap(const string& name) -> bool {
@@ -29,8 +29,8 @@ struct InputXlib : Input {
   }
 
   auto set(const string& name, const any& value) -> bool {
-    if(name == Input::Handle && value.is<uintptr>()) {
-      settings.handle = value.get<uintptr>();
+    if(name == Input::Handle && value.is<uintptr_t>()) {
+      settings.handle = value.get<uintptr_t>();
       return true;
     }
 
diff --git a/ruby/video/cgl.cpp b/ruby/video/cgl.cpp
index eed6cce9..640c3d72 100644
--- a/ruby/video/cgl.cpp
+++ b/ruby/video/cgl.cpp
@@ -32,15 +32,15 @@ struct VideoCGL : Video, OpenGL {
   }
 
   auto get(const string& name) -> any {
-    if(name == Video::Handle) return (uintptr)settings.handle;
+    if(name == Video::Handle) return (uintptr_t)settings.handle;
     if(name == Video::Synchronize) return settings.synchronize;
     if(name == Video::Filter) return settings.filter;
     return {};
   }
 
   auto set(const string& name, const any& value) -> bool {
-    if(name == Video::Handle && value.is<uintptr>()) {
-      settings.handle = (NSView*)value.get<uintptr>();
+    if(name == Video::Handle && value.is<uintptr_t>()) {
+      settings.handle = (NSView*)value.get<uintptr_t>();
       return true;
     }
 
diff --git a/ruby/video/opengl/main.hpp b/ruby/video/opengl/main.hpp
index e664fde7..a5ac409f 100644
--- a/ruby/video/opengl/main.hpp
+++ b/ruby/video/opengl/main.hpp
@@ -28,11 +28,11 @@ auto OpenGL::shader(const string& pathname) -> void {
     for(auto node : document["output"]) {
       string text = node.text();
       if(node.name() == "width") {
-        if(text.endsWith("%")) relativeWidth = real(text.trimRight("%", 1L)) / 100.0;
+        if(text.endsWith("%")) relativeWidth = toReal(text.trimRight("%", 1L)) / 100.0;
         else absoluteWidth = text.natural();
       }
       if(node.name() == "height") {
-        if(text.endsWith("%")) relativeHeight = real(text.trimRight("%", 1L)) / 100.0;
+        if(text.endsWith("%")) relativeHeight = toReal(text.trimRight("%", 1L)) / 100.0;
         else absoluteHeight = text.natural();
       }
     }
diff --git a/ruby/video/opengl/program.hpp b/ruby/video/opengl/program.hpp
index 0c2fda64..284ee078 100644
--- a/ruby/video/opengl/program.hpp
+++ b/ruby/video/opengl/program.hpp
@@ -4,9 +4,9 @@ auto OpenGLProgram::bind(OpenGL* instance, const Markup::Node& node, const strin
   modulo = glrModulo(node["modulo"].integer());
 
   string w = node["width"].text(), h = node["height"].text();
-  if(w.endsWith("%")) relativeWidth = real(w.trimRight("%", 1L)) / 100.0;
+  if(w.endsWith("%")) relativeWidth = toReal(w.trimRight("%", 1L)) / 100.0;
   else absoluteWidth = w.natural();
-  if(h.endsWith("%")) relativeHeight = real(h.trimRight("%", 1L)) / 100.0;
+  if(h.endsWith("%")) relativeHeight = toReal(h.trimRight("%", 1L)) / 100.0;
   else absoluteHeight = h.natural();
 
   format = glrFormat(node["format"].text());
diff --git a/ruby/video/wgl.cpp b/ruby/video/wgl.cpp
index 82fcfb7b..f556f581 100644
--- a/ruby/video/wgl.cpp
+++ b/ruby/video/wgl.cpp
@@ -30,15 +30,15 @@ struct VideoWGL : Video, OpenGL {
   }
 
   auto get(const string& name) -> any {
-    if(name == Video::Handle) return (uintptr)settings.handle;
+    if(name == Video::Handle) return (uintptr_t)settings.handle;
     if(name == Video::Synchronize) return settings.synchronize;
     if(name == Video::Filter) return settings.filter;
     return {};
   }
 
   auto set(const string& name, const any& value) -> bool {
-    if(name == Video::Handle && value.is<uintptr>()) {
-      settings.handle = (HWND)value.get<uintptr>();
+    if(name == Video::Handle && value.is<uintptr_t>()) {
+      settings.handle = (HWND)value.get<uintptr_t>();
       return true;
     }