diff --git a/genius/genius.cpp b/genius/genius.cpp
index 9fcf4718..4f9bb425 100644
--- a/genius/genius.cpp
+++ b/genius/genius.cpp
@@ -615,9 +615,12 @@ auto OscillatorWindow::updateWindow() -> void {
 
 //
 
-#include <nall/main.hpp>
-auto nall::main(string_vector args) -> void {
+auto hiro::initialize() -> void {
   Application::setName("genius");
+}
+
+#include <nall/main.hpp>
+auto nall::main(vector<string> arguments) -> void {
   new ListWindow;
   new GameWindow;
   new MemoryWindow;
@@ -625,12 +628,12 @@ auto nall::main(string_vector args) -> void {
 
   //internal command used to synchronize all genius databases from an old format to a new format
   //if enabled, use with extreme caution and make backups first
-/*if(args.size() == 3 && args[1] == "--sync") {
-    for(auto& filename : directory::contents(args[2], "*.bml")) {
+/*if(arguments.size() == 3 && arguments[1] == "--sync") {
+    for(auto& filename : directory::contents(arguments[2], "*.bml")) {
       if(filename.beginsWith("Boards")) continue;
       print(filename, "\n");
-      listWindow->loadDatabase({args[2], filename});
-      listWindow->saveDatabase({args[2], filename});
+      listWindow->loadDatabase({arguments[2], filename});
+      listWindow->saveDatabase({arguments[2], filename});
     }
     return print("[Done]\n");
   }*/
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/bsnes.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/bsnes.cpp
index 700bfec0..b174baf5 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/bsnes.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/bsnes.cpp
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 #include "bsnes.hpp"
 #include <sfc/interface/interface.hpp>
-unique_pointer<Video> video;
-unique_pointer<Audio> audio;
-unique_pointer<Input> input;
+Video video;
+Audio audio;
+Input input;
 unique_pointer<Emulator::Interface> emulator;
 
 auto locate(string name) -> string {
@@ -18,6 +18,10 @@ auto locate(string name) -> string {
   return {Path::userData(), "bsnes/", name};
 }
 
+auto hiro::initialize() -> void {
+  Application::setName("bsnes");
+}
+
 #include <nall/main.hpp>
 auto nall::main(vector<string> arguments) -> void {
   string locale;  // = "日本語";
@@ -26,7 +30,6 @@ auto nall::main(vector<string> arguments) -> void {
       locale = argument.trimLeft("--locale=", 1L);
     }
   }
-  Application::setName("bsnes");
   Application::setScreenSaver(!settings["UserInterface/SuppressScreenSaver"].boolean());
   Application::locale().scan(locate("locales/"));
   Application::locale().select(locale);
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/bsnes.hpp b/higan/target-bsnes/bsnes.hpp
index 68f769db..7a93071c 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/bsnes.hpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/bsnes.hpp
@@ -4,9 +4,9 @@
 using namespace nall;
 using namespace ruby;
 using namespace hiro;
-extern unique_pointer<Video> video;
-extern unique_pointer<Audio> audio;
-extern unique_pointer<Input> input;
+extern Video video;
+extern Audio audio;
+extern Input input;
 
 #include <emulator/emulator.hpp>
 extern unique_pointer<Emulator::Interface> emulator;
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/input/hotkeys.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/input/hotkeys.cpp
index ac0b496a..1f6d6277 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/input/hotkeys.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/input/hotkeys.cpp
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ auto InputManager::bindHotkeys() -> void {
   }));
 
   hotkeys.append(InputHotkey("Toggle Mouse Capture").onPress([] {
-    input->acquired() ? input->release() : input->acquire();
+    input.acquired() ? input.release() : input.acquire();
   }));
 
   hotkeys.append(InputHotkey("Toggle Cheat Codes").onPress([] {
@@ -47,11 +47,11 @@ auto InputManager::bindHotkeys() -> void {
   }));
 
   hotkeys.append(InputHotkey("Fast Forward").onPress([] {
-    video->setBlocking(false);
-    audio->setBlocking(false);
+    video.setBlocking(false);
+    audio.setBlocking(false);
   }).onRelease([] {
-    video->setBlocking(settings["Video/Blocking"].boolean());
-    audio->setBlocking(settings["Audio/Blocking"].boolean());
+    video.setBlocking(settings["Video/Blocking"].boolean());
+    audio.setBlocking(settings["Audio/Blocking"].boolean());
   }));
 
   hotkeys.append(InputHotkey("Pause Emulation").onPress([] {
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/input/input.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/input/input.cpp
index 685fa6be..cd82f772 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/input/input.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/input/input.cpp
@@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ auto InputMapping::poll() -> int16 {
 
 auto InputMapping::rumble(bool enable) -> void {
   for(auto& mapping : mappings) {
-    ::input->rumble(mapping.device->id(), enable);
+    input.rumble(mapping.device->id(), enable);
   }
 }
 
@@ -190,7 +190,7 @@ auto InputManager::initialize() -> void {
   hotkeys.reset();
 
   if(!input) return;
-  input->onChange({&InputManager::onChange, this});
+  input.onChange({&InputManager::onChange, this});
 
   lastPoll = chrono::millisecond();
   frequency = max(1u, settings["Input/Frequency"].natural());
@@ -264,7 +264,7 @@ auto InputManager::poll() -> void {
   if(thisPoll - lastPoll < frequency) return;
   lastPoll = thisPoll;
 
-  auto devices = input->poll();
+  auto devices = input.poll();
   bool changed = devices.size() != this->devices.size();
   if(!changed) {
     for(auto n : range(devices.size())) {
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/about.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/about.cpp
index dda442c9..f15cf7ab 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/about.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/about.cpp
@@ -1,6 +1,4 @@
-AboutWindow::AboutWindow() {
-  aboutWindow = this;
-
+auto AboutWindow::create() -> void {
   setTitle({tr("About {0}", "bsnes"), " ..."});
   setBackgroundColor({255, 255, 240});
   layout.setPadding(10);
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/presentation.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/presentation.cpp
index 589e640e..ad39f174 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/presentation.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/presentation.cpp
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 #include "../bsnes.hpp"
 #include "about.cpp"
-unique_pointer<AboutWindow> aboutWindow;
+AboutWindow aboutWindow;
 unique_pointer<Presentation> presentation;
 
 Presentation::Presentation() {
@@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ Presentation::Presentation() {
   speedFast.setText("150% (Fast)").setProperty("multiplier", "0.667").onActivate([&] { program->updateAudioFrequency(); });
   speedFastest.setText("200% (Fastest)").setProperty("multiplier", "0.5").onActivate([&] { program->updateAudioFrequency(); });
   pauseEmulation.setText("Pause Emulation").onToggle([&] {
-    if(pauseEmulation.checked()) audio->clear();
+    if(pauseEmulation.checked()) audio.clear();
   });
   frameAdvance.setIcon(Icon::Media::Next).setText("Frame Advance").onActivate([&] {
     pauseEmulation.setChecked(false);
@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ Presentation::Presentation() {
     invoke("https://doc.byuu.org/bsnes/");
   });
   about.setIcon(Icon::Prompt::Question).setText({tr("About"), " ..."}).onActivate([&] {
-    aboutWindow->setCentered(*this).setVisible().setFocused();
+    aboutWindow.setCentered(*this).setVisible().setFocused();
   });
 
   viewport.setDroppable().onDrop([&](vector<string> locations) {
@@ -241,14 +241,14 @@ auto Presentation::clearViewport() -> void {
   uint length;
   uint width = 16;
   uint height = 16;
-  if(video->acquire(output, length, width, height)) {
+  if(video.acquire(output, length, width, height)) {
     for(uint y : range(height)) {
       auto line = output + y * (length >> 2);
       for(uint x : range(width)) *line++ = 0xff000000;
     }
     if(!emulator->loaded()) drawIcon(output, length, width, height);
-    video->release();
-    video->output();
+    video.release();
+    video.output();
   }
 }
 
@@ -326,14 +326,14 @@ auto Presentation::toggleFullscreenMode() -> void {
     }
     menuBar.setVisible(false);
     setFullScreen(true);
-    video->setExclusive(settings["Video/Exclusive"].boolean());
-    if(video->exclusive()) setVisible(false);
-    if(!input->acquired()) input->acquire();
+    video.setExclusive(settings["Video/Exclusive"].boolean());
+    if(video.exclusive()) setVisible(false);
+    if(!input.acquired()) input.acquire();
     resizeViewport();
   } else {
-    if(input->acquired()) input->release();
-    if(video->exclusive()) setVisible(true);
-    video->setExclusive(false);
+    if(input.acquired()) input.release();
+    if(video.exclusive()) setVisible(true);
+    video.setExclusive(false);
     setFullScreen(false);
     menuBar.setVisible(true);
     if(settings["UserInterface/ShowStatusBar"].boolean()) {
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/presentation.hpp b/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/presentation.hpp
index d587e290..9858ada3 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/presentation.hpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/presentation/presentation.hpp
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 struct AboutWindow : Window {
   Application::Namespace tr{"AboutWindow"};
-
-  AboutWindow();
+  auto create() -> void;
 
   VerticalLayout layout{this};
     Canvas canvas{&layout, Size{400, 85}, 0};
@@ -113,5 +112,5 @@ struct Presentation : Window {
       Label spacerRight{&statusLayout, Size{8, ~0}, 0};
 };
 
-extern unique_pointer<AboutWindow> aboutWindow;
+extern AboutWindow aboutWindow;
 extern unique_pointer<Presentation> presentation;
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/program/audio.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/program/audio.cpp
index 906e33f6..f1d44d67 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/program/audio.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/program/audio.cpp
@@ -1,19 +1,19 @@
 auto Program::updateAudioDriver(Window parent) -> void {
   auto changed = (bool)audio;
-  audio = Audio::create(settings["Audio/Driver"].text());
-  audio->setContext(presentation->viewport.handle());
-  audio->setChannels(2);
+  audio.create(settings["Audio/Driver"].text());
+  audio.setContext(presentation->viewport.handle());
+  audio.setChannels(2);
   if(changed) {
-    settings["Audio/Device"].setValue(audio->defaultDevice());
-    settings["Audio/Frequency"].setValue(audio->defaultFrequency());
-    settings["Audio/Latency"].setValue(audio->defaultLatency());
+    settings["Audio/Device"].setValue(audio.device());
+    settings["Audio/Frequency"].setValue(audio.frequency());
+    settings["Audio/Latency"].setValue(audio.latency());
   }
   updateAudioExclusive();
   updateAudioDevice();
   updateAudioBlocking();
   updateAudioDynamic();
 
-  if(!audio->ready()) {
+  if(!audio.ready()) {
     MessageDialog({
       "Error: failed to initialize [", settings["Audio/Driver"].text(), "] audio driver."
     }).setParent(parent).error();
@@ -23,36 +23,36 @@ auto Program::updateAudioDriver(Window parent) -> void {
 }
 
 auto Program::updateAudioExclusive() -> void {
-  audio->setExclusive(settings["Audio/Exclusive"].boolean());
+  audio.setExclusive(settings["Audio/Exclusive"].boolean());
   updateAudioFrequency();
   updateAudioLatency();
 }
 
 auto Program::updateAudioDevice() -> void {
-  audio->clear();
-  if(!audio->availableDevices().find(settings["Audio/Device"].text())) {
-    settings["Audio/Device"].setValue(audio->defaultDevice());
+  audio.clear();
+  if(!audio.hasDevice(settings["Audio/Device"].text())) {
+    settings["Audio/Device"].setValue(audio.device());
   }
-  audio->setDevice(settings["Audio/Device"].text());
+  audio.setDevice(settings["Audio/Device"].text());
   updateAudioFrequency();
   updateAudioLatency();
 }
 
 auto Program::updateAudioBlocking() -> void {
-  audio->clear();
-  audio->setBlocking(settings["Audio/Blocking"].boolean());
+  audio.clear();
+  audio.setBlocking(settings["Audio/Blocking"].boolean());
 }
 
 auto Program::updateAudioDynamic() -> void {
-  audio->setDynamic(settings["Audio/Dynamic"].boolean());
+  audio.setDynamic(settings["Audio/Dynamic"].boolean());
 }
 
 auto Program::updateAudioFrequency() -> void {
-  audio->clear();
-  if(!audio->availableFrequencies().find(settings["Audio/Frequency"].real())) {
-    settings["Audio/Frequency"].setValue(audio->defaultFrequency());
+  audio.clear();
+  if(!audio.hasFrequency(settings["Audio/Frequency"].real())) {
+    settings["Audio/Frequency"].setValue(audio.frequency());
   }
-  audio->setFrequency(settings["Audio/Frequency"].real());
+  audio.setFrequency(settings["Audio/Frequency"].real());
   double frequency = settings["Audio/Frequency"].real() + settings["Audio/Skew"].integer();
   for(auto item : presentation->speedGroup.objects<MenuRadioItem>()) {
     if(item.checked()) frequency *= item.property("multiplier").real();
@@ -61,11 +61,11 @@ auto Program::updateAudioFrequency() -> void {
 }
 
 auto Program::updateAudioLatency() -> void {
-  audio->clear();
-  if(!audio->availableLatencies().find(settings["Audio/Latency"].natural())) {
-    settings["Audio/Latency"].setValue(audio->defaultLatency());
+  audio.clear();
+  if(!audio.hasLatency(settings["Audio/Latency"].natural())) {
+    settings["Audio/Latency"].setValue(audio.latency());
   }
-  audio->setLatency(settings["Audio/Latency"].natural());
+  audio.setLatency(settings["Audio/Latency"].natural());
 }
 
 auto Program::updateAudioEffects() -> void {
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/program/input.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/program/input.cpp
index 3259f903..241049eb 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/program/input.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/program/input.cpp
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 auto Program::updateInputDriver(Window parent) -> void {
   auto changed = (bool)input;
-  input = Input::create(settings["Input/Driver"].text());
-  input->setContext(presentation->viewport.handle());
+  input.create(settings["Input/Driver"].text());
+  input.setContext(presentation->viewport.handle());
   if(changed) {
   }
 
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ auto Program::updateInputDriver(Window parent) -> void {
   settingsWindow->input.reloadPorts();
   settingsWindow->hotkeys.reloadMappings();
 
-  if(!input->ready()) {
+  if(!input.ready()) {
     MessageDialog({
       "Error: failed to initialize [", settings["Input/Driver"].text(), "] input driver."
     }).setParent(parent).error();
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/program/platform.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/program/platform.cpp
index 218c317b..410ef9c3 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/program/platform.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/program/platform.cpp
@@ -210,15 +210,15 @@ auto Program::videoRefresh(uint display, const uint32* data, uint pitch, uint wi
   screenshot.width = width;
   screenshot.height = height;
 
-  if(video->acquire(output, length, width, height)) {
+  if(video.acquire(output, length, width, height)) {
     length >>= 2;
 
     for(auto y : range(height)) {
       memory::copy<uint32>(output + y * length, data + y * pitch, width);
     }
 
-    video->release();
-    video->output();
+    video.release();
+    video.output();
   }
 
   inputManager->frame();
@@ -241,7 +241,7 @@ auto Program::videoRefresh(uint display, const uint32* data, uint pitch, uint wi
 }
 
 auto Program::audioSample(const double* samples, uint channels) -> void {
-  audio->output(samples);
+  audio.output(samples);
 }
 
 auto Program::inputPoll(uint port, uint device, uint input) -> int16 {
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/program/program.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/program/program.cpp
index ca5cf550..16f15e88 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/program/program.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/program/program.cpp
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ Program::Program(vector<string> arguments) {
   new CheatWindow;
   new StateWindow;
   new ToolsWindow;
-  new AboutWindow;
+  aboutWindow.create();
 
   if(settings["Crashed"].boolean()) {
     MessageDialog(
@@ -67,12 +67,12 @@ auto Program::main() -> void {
   if(Application::modal()) return;
 
   updateStatus();
-  video->poll();
+  video.poll();
   inputManager->poll();
   inputManager->pollHotkeys();
 
   if(paused()) {
-    audio->clear();
+    audio.clear();
     usleep(20 * 1000);
     return;
   }
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/program/utility.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/program/utility.cpp
index 8e06e239..38d5c364 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/program/utility.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/program/utility.cpp
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ auto Program::paused() -> bool {
 
 auto Program::focused() -> bool {
   //exclusive mode creates its own top-level window: presentation window will not have focus
-  if(video && video->exclusive()) return true;
+  if(video && video.exclusive()) return true;
   if(presentation && presentation->focused()) return true;
   return false;
 }
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/program/video.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/program/video.cpp
index bb68c5d6..c09e48f3 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/program/video.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/program/video.cpp
@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
 auto Program::updateVideoDriver(Window parent) -> void {
   auto changed = (bool)video;
-  video = Video::create(settings["Video/Driver"].text());
-  video->setContext(presentation->viewport.handle());
+  video.create(settings["Video/Driver"].text());
+  video.setContext(presentation->viewport.handle());
   if(changed) {
-    settings["Video/Format"].setValue(video->defaultFormat());
+    settings["Video/Format"].setValue(video.format());
   }
   updateVideoExclusive();
   updateVideoBlocking();
@@ -11,16 +11,16 @@ auto Program::updateVideoDriver(Window parent) -> void {
   updateVideoFormat();
   updateVideoShader();
 
-  if(video->ready()) {
+  if(video.ready()) {
     presentation->clearViewport();
     updateVideoShader();
   }
 
-  video->onUpdate([&](uint width, uint height) {
+  video.onUpdate([&](uint width, uint height) {
     if(!emulator->loaded()) presentation->clearViewport();
   });
 
-  if(!video->ready()) {
+  if(!video.ready()) {
     MessageDialog({
       "Error: failed to initialize [", settings["Video/Driver"].text(), "] video driver."
     }).setParent(parent).error();
@@ -33,22 +33,22 @@ auto Program::updateVideoDriver(Window parent) -> void {
 
 auto Program::updateVideoExclusive() -> void {
   //only enabled in fullscreen mode via Presentation::toggleFullScreen()
-  video->setExclusive(false);
+  video.setExclusive(false);
 }
 
 auto Program::updateVideoBlocking() -> void {
-  video->setBlocking(settings["Video/Blocking"].boolean());
+  video.setBlocking(settings["Video/Blocking"].boolean());
 }
 
 auto Program::updateVideoFlush() -> void {
-  video->setFlush(settings["Video/Flush"].boolean());
+  video.setFlush(settings["Video/Flush"].boolean());
 }
 
 auto Program::updateVideoFormat() -> void {
-  if(!video->availableFormats().find(settings["Video/Format"].text())) {
-    settings["Video/Format"].setValue(video->defaultFormat());
+  if(!video.hasFormat(settings["Video/Format"].text())) {
+    settings["Video/Format"].setValue(video.format());
   }
-  video->setFormat(settings["Video/Format"].text());
+  video.setFormat(settings["Video/Format"].text());
 }
 
 auto Program::updateVideoShader() -> void {
@@ -56,11 +56,11 @@ auto Program::updateVideoShader() -> void {
   && settings["Video/Shader"].text() != "None"
   && settings["Video/Shader"].text() != "Blur"
   ) {
-    video->setSmooth(false);
-    video->setShader(settings["Video/Shader"].text());
+    video.setSmooth(false);
+    video.setShader(settings["Video/Shader"].text());
   } else {
-    video->setSmooth(settings["Video/Shader"].text() == "Blur");
-    video->setShader("");
+    video.setSmooth(settings["Video/Shader"].text() == "Blur");
+    video.setShader("");
   }
 }
 
diff --git a/higan/target-bsnes/settings/drivers.cpp b/higan/target-bsnes/settings/drivers.cpp
index bc90dc4d..cf861671 100644
--- a/higan/target-bsnes/settings/drivers.cpp
+++ b/higan/target-bsnes/settings/drivers.cpp
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ DriverSettings::DriverSettings(TabFrame* parent) : TabFrameItem(parent) {
   videoLayout.setSize({2, 2});
   videoDriverLabel.setText("Driver:");
   videoDriverOption.onChange([&] {
-    videoDriverUpdate.setEnabled(videoDriverOption.selected().text() != video->driver());
+    videoDriverUpdate.setEnabled(videoDriverOption.selected().text() != video.driverName());
   });
   videoDriverUpdate.setText("Change").onActivate([&] { videoDriverChange(); });
   videoFormatLabel.setText("Format:");
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ DriverSettings::DriverSettings(TabFrame* parent) : TabFrameItem(parent) {
   audioLayout.setSize({2, 2});
   audioDriverLabel.setText("Driver:");
   audioDriverOption.onChange([&] {
-    audioDriverUpdate.setEnabled(audioDriverOption.selected().text() != audio->driver());
+    audioDriverUpdate.setEnabled(audioDriverOption.selected().text() != audio.driverName());
   });
   audioDriverUpdate.setText("Change").onActivate([&] { audioDriverChange(); });
   audioDeviceLabel.setText("Device:");
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ DriverSettings::DriverSettings(TabFrame* parent) : TabFrameItem(parent) {
   inputLayout.setSize({2, 1});
   inputDriverLabel.setText("Driver:");
   inputDriverOption.onChange([&] {
-    inputDriverUpdate.setEnabled(inputDriverOption.selected().text() != input->driver());
+    inputDriverUpdate.setEnabled(inputDriverOption.selected().text() != input.driverName());
   });
   inputDriverUpdate.setText("Change").onActivate([&] { inputDriverChange(); });
 
@@ -70,17 +70,17 @@ DriverSettings::DriverSettings(TabFrame* parent) : TabFrameItem(parent) {
 
 auto DriverSettings::videoDriverChanged() -> void {
   videoDriverOption.reset();
-  for(auto& driver : video->availableDrivers()) {
+  for(auto& driver : video.hasDrivers()) {
     ComboButtonItem item{&videoDriverOption};
     item.setText(driver);
-    if(driver == video->driver()) item.setSelected();
+    if(driver == video.driverName()) item.setSelected();
   }
-  videoDriverActive.setText({"Active driver: ", video->driver()});
+  videoDriverActive.setText({"Active driver: ", video.driverName()});
   videoDriverOption.doChange();
   videoFormatChanged();
-  videoExclusiveToggle.setChecked(video->exclusive()).setEnabled(video->hasExclusive());
-  videoBlockingToggle.setChecked(video->blocking()).setEnabled(video->hasBlocking());
-  videoFlushToggle.setChecked(video->flush()).setEnabled(video->hasFlush());
+  videoExclusiveToggle.setChecked(video.exclusive()).setEnabled(video.hasExclusive());
+  videoBlockingToggle.setChecked(video.blocking()).setEnabled(video.hasBlocking());
+  videoFlushToggle.setChecked(video.flush()).setEnabled(video.hasFlush());
   layout.setGeometry(layout.geometry());
 }
 
@@ -105,38 +105,38 @@ auto DriverSettings::videoDriverChange() -> void {
 
 auto DriverSettings::videoFormatChanged() -> void {
   videoFormatOption.reset();
-  for(auto& format : video->availableFormats()) {
+  for(auto& format : video.hasFormats()) {
     ComboButtonItem item{&videoFormatOption};
     item.setText(format);
-    if(format == video->format()) item.setSelected();
+    if(format == video.format()) item.setSelected();
   }
-  videoFormatOption.setEnabled(video->hasFormat());
+//videoFormatOption.setEnabled(video.hasFormat());
   layout.setGeometry(layout.geometry());
 }
 
 auto DriverSettings::videoFormatChange() -> void {
   auto item = videoFormatOption.selected();
   settings["Video/Format"].setValue(item.text());
-  video->setFormat(item.text());
+  video.setFormat(item.text());
 }
 
 //
 
 auto DriverSettings::audioDriverChanged() -> void {
   audioDriverOption.reset();
-  for(auto& driver : audio->availableDrivers()) {
+  for(auto& driver : audio.hasDrivers()) {
     ComboButtonItem item{&audioDriverOption};
     item.setText(driver);
-    if(driver == audio->driver()) item.setSelected();
+    if(driver == audio.driverName()) item.setSelected();
   }
-  audioDriverActive.setText({"Active driver: ", audio->driver()});
+  audioDriverActive.setText({"Active driver: ", audio.driverName()});
   audioDriverOption.doChange();
   audioDeviceChanged();
   audioFrequencyChanged();
   audioLatencyChanged();
-  audioExclusiveToggle.setChecked(audio->exclusive()).setEnabled(audio->hasExclusive());
-  audioBlockingToggle.setChecked(audio->blocking()).setEnabled(audio->hasBlocking());
-  audioDynamicToggle.setChecked(audio->dynamic()).setEnabled(audio->hasDynamic());
+  audioExclusiveToggle.setChecked(audio.exclusive()).setEnabled(audio.hasExclusive());
+  audioBlockingToggle.setChecked(audio.blocking()).setEnabled(audio.hasBlocking());
+  audioDynamicToggle.setChecked(audio.dynamic()).setEnabled(audio.hasDynamic());
   layout.setGeometry(layout.geometry());
 }
 
@@ -161,12 +161,12 @@ auto DriverSettings::audioDriverChange() -> void {
 
 auto DriverSettings::audioDeviceChanged() -> void {
   audioDeviceOption.reset();
-  for(auto& device : audio->availableDevices()) {
+  for(auto& device : audio.hasDevices()) {
     ComboButtonItem item{&audioDeviceOption};
     item.setText(device);
-    if(device == audio->device()) item.setSelected();
+    if(device == audio.device()) item.setSelected();
   }
-  audioDeviceOption.setEnabled(audio->hasDevice());
+//audioDeviceOption.setEnabled(audio->hasDevice());
   layout.setGeometry(layout.geometry());
 }
 
@@ -180,12 +180,12 @@ auto DriverSettings::audioDeviceChange() -> void {
 
 auto DriverSettings::audioFrequencyChanged() -> void {
   audioFrequencyOption.reset();
-  for(auto& frequency : audio->availableFrequencies()) {
+  for(auto& frequency : audio.hasFrequencies()) {
     ComboButtonItem item{&audioFrequencyOption};
     item.setText({(uint)frequency, "hz"});
-    if(frequency == audio->frequency()) item.setSelected();
+    if(frequency == audio.frequency()) item.setSelected();
   }
-  audioFrequencyOption.setEnabled(audio->hasFrequency());
+//audioFrequencyOption.setEnabled(audio->hasFrequency());
   layout.setGeometry(layout.geometry());
 }
 
@@ -197,12 +197,12 @@ auto DriverSettings::audioFrequencyChange() -> void {
 
 auto DriverSettings::audioLatencyChanged() -> void {
   audioLatencyOption.reset();
-  for(auto& latency : audio->availableLatencies()) {
+  for(auto& latency : audio.hasLatencies()) {
     ComboButtonItem item{&audioLatencyOption};
     item.setText(latency);
-    if(latency == audio->latency()) item.setSelected();
+    if(latency == audio.latency()) item.setSelected();
   }
-  audioLatencyOption.setEnabled(audio->hasLatency());
+//audioLatencyOption.setEnabled(audio->hasLatency());
   layout.setGeometry(layout.geometry());
 }
 
@@ -216,12 +216,12 @@ auto DriverSettings::audioLatencyChange() -> void {
 
 auto DriverSettings::inputDriverChanged() -> void {
   inputDriverOption.reset();
-  for(auto& driver : input->availableDrivers()) {
+  for(auto& driver : input.hasDrivers()) {
     ComboButtonItem item{&inputDriverOption};
     item.setText(driver);
-    if(driver == input->driver()) item.setSelected();
+    if(driver == input.driverName()) item.setSelected();
   }
-  inputDriverActive.setText({"Active driver: ", input->driver()});
+  inputDriverActive.setText({"Active driver: ", input.driverName()});
   inputDriverOption.doChange();
   layout.setGeometry(layout.geometry());
 }
diff --git a/hiro/core/application.cpp b/hiro/core/application.cpp
index db79ff5f..8ae463ab 100644
--- a/hiro/core/application.cpp
+++ b/hiro/core/application.cpp
@@ -134,6 +134,7 @@ auto Application::initialize() -> void {
   static bool initialized = false;
   if(initialized == false) {
     initialized = true;
+    hiro::initialize();
     return pApplication::initialize();
   }
 }
diff --git a/hiro/core/core.hpp b/hiro/core/core.hpp
index 888ec254..fb00689e 100644
--- a/hiro/core/core.hpp
+++ b/hiro/core/core.hpp
@@ -29,6 +29,8 @@ using nall::vector;
 
 namespace hiro {
 
+auto initialize() -> void;
+
 struct Font;
 struct Keyboard;
 
diff --git a/icarus/icarus.cpp b/icarus/icarus.cpp
index 355b5ff2..c367629d 100644
--- a/icarus/icarus.cpp
+++ b/icarus/icarus.cpp
@@ -57,10 +57,12 @@ Icarus icarus;
 #include "ui/import-dialog.cpp"
 #include "ui/error-dialog.cpp"
 
+auto hiro::initialize() -> void {
+  Application::setName("icarus");
+}
+
 #include <nall/main.hpp>
 auto nall::main(vector<string> arguments) -> void {
-  Application::setName("icarus");
-
   if(arguments.size() == 2 && arguments[1] == "--name") {
     return print("icarus");
   }
diff --git a/nall/dsp/resampler/cubic.hpp b/nall/dsp/resampler/cubic.hpp
index 0d7a719a..3962a244 100644
--- a/nall/dsp/resampler/cubic.hpp
+++ b/nall/dsp/resampler/cubic.hpp
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 namespace nall { namespace DSP { namespace Resampler {
 
 struct Cubic {
-  inline auto reset(double inputFrequency, double outputFrequency, uint queueSize = 0) -> void;
+  inline auto reset(double inputFrequency, double outputFrequency = 0, uint queueSize = 0) -> void;
   inline auto setInputFrequency(double inputFrequency) -> void;
   inline auto pending() const -> bool;
   inline auto read() -> double;
@@ -24,13 +24,12 @@ private:
 
 auto Cubic::reset(double inputFrequency, double outputFrequency, uint queueSize) -> void {
   this->inputFrequency = inputFrequency;
-  this->outputFrequency = outputFrequency;
-  if(!queueSize) queueSize = outputFrequency * 0.02;  //20ms
+  this->outputFrequency = outputFrequency ? outputFrequency : this->inputFrequency;
 
   ratio = inputFrequency / outputFrequency;
   fraction = 0.0;
-  for(auto& sample: history) sample = 0.0;
-  samples.resize(queueSize);
+  for(auto& sample : history) sample = 0.0;
+  samples.resize(queueSize ? queueSize : this->outputFrequency * 0.02);  //default to 20ms max queue size
 }
 
 auto Cubic::setInputFrequency(double inputFrequency) -> void {
diff --git a/nall/queue.hpp b/nall/queue.hpp
index 6890766f..0b44daf6 100644
--- a/nall/queue.hpp
+++ b/nall/queue.hpp
@@ -2,26 +2,23 @@
 
 //simple circular ring buffer
 
+#include <nall/range.hpp>
+#include <nall/serializer.hpp>
+
 namespace nall {
 
 template<typename T>
 struct queue {
   queue() = default;
-
-  queue(const queue& source) {
-    operator=(source);
-  }
-
-  queue(queue&& source) {
-    operator=(move(source));
-  }
+  queue(const queue& source) { operator=(source); }
+  queue(queue&& source) { operator=(move(source)); }
 
   auto operator=(const queue& source) -> queue& {
     if(this == &source) return *this;
     reset();
     _size = source._size;
     _data = new T[_size];
-    for(auto n : range(_size)) _data[n] = source._data[n];
+    for(uint n : range(_size)) _data[n] = source._data[n];
     _read = source._read;
     _write = source._write;
     return *this;
@@ -42,21 +39,14 @@ struct queue {
     reset();
   }
 
-  explicit operator bool() const {
-    return _size;
-  }
+  explicit operator bool() const { return _size; }
+  template<typename U = T> auto size() const -> uint { return _size * sizeof(T) / sizeof(U); }
+  auto empty() const -> bool { return _read == _write; }
+  auto pending() const -> bool { return _read != _write; }
+  auto full() const -> bool { return _write == _size; }
 
-  auto size() const -> uint {
-    return _size;
-  }
-
-  auto data() -> T* {
-    return _data;
-  }
-
-  auto data() const -> const T* {
-    return _data;
-  }
+  auto data() -> T* { return _data; }
+  auto data() const -> const T* { return _data; }
 
   auto reset() {
     delete[] _data;
@@ -70,26 +60,29 @@ struct queue {
     reset();
     _size = size;
     _data = new T[_size];
-    for(auto n : range(_size)) _data[n] = value;
+    for(uint n : range(_size)) _data[n] = value;
   }
 
-  auto pending() const -> bool {
-    return _read != _write;
+  auto flush() -> void {
+    _read = 0;
+    _write = 0;
   }
 
   auto read() -> T {
-    T result = _data[_read];
-    if(++_read >= _size) _read = 0;
-    return result;
-  }
-
-  auto last() const -> T {
-    return _data[_write];
+    if(_read >= _size) _read = 0;
+    return _data[_read++];
   }
 
   auto write(const T& value) -> void {
-    _data[_write] = value;
-    if(++_write >= _size) _write = 0;
+    if(_write >= _size) _write = 0;
+    _data[_write++] = value;
+  }
+
+  auto serialize(serializer& s) -> void {
+    s.array(_data, _size);
+    s.integer(_size);
+    s.integer(_read);
+    s.integer(_write);
   }
 
 private:
diff --git a/ruby/GNUmakefile b/ruby/GNUmakefile
index 6b45e297..a010e73e 100644
--- a/ruby/GNUmakefile
+++ b/ruby/GNUmakefile
@@ -12,9 +12,10 @@ ifeq ($(ruby),)
     ruby += audio.oss audio.alsa audio.openal audio.pulseaudio audio.pulseaudiosimple audio.ao
     ruby += input.sdl input.xlib input.udev
   else ifeq ($(platform),bsd)
-    ruby += video.glx video.glx2 video.xvideo video.xshm
-    ruby += audio.oss audio.openal
-    ruby += input.sdl input.xlib
+#    ruby += video.glx video.glx2 video.xvideo video.xshm
+    ruby += video.glx2 video.xshm
+    ruby += audio.oss #audio.openal
+    ruby += input.sdl #input.xlib
   endif
 endif
 
diff --git a/ruby/audio.hpp b/ruby/audio.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 37699b62..00000000
--- a/ruby/audio.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,67 +0,0 @@
-struct Audio {
-  static auto create(string driver = "") -> Audio*;
-  static auto optimalDriver() -> string;
-  static auto safestDriver() -> string;
-  static auto availableDrivers() -> vector<string>;
-
-  virtual ~Audio() = default;
-
-  virtual auto driver() -> string { return "None"; }
-  virtual auto ready() -> bool { return true; }
-
-  virtual auto hasExclusive() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasContext() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasDevice() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasBlocking() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasDynamic() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasChannels() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasFrequency() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasLatency() -> bool { return false; }
-
-  virtual auto availableDevices() -> vector<string> { return {"Default"}; }
-  virtual auto availableChannels() -> vector<uint> { return {2}; }
-  virtual auto availableFrequencies() -> vector<double> { return {48000.0}; }
-  virtual auto availableLatencies() -> vector<uint> { return {0}; }
-
-  virtual auto defaultDevice() -> string { return availableDevices().first(); }
-  virtual auto defaultChannels() -> uint { return availableChannels().first(); }
-  virtual auto defaultFrequency() -> double { return availableFrequencies().first(); }
-  virtual auto defaultLatency() -> uint { return availableLatencies().first(); }
-
-  virtual auto exclusive() -> bool { return _exclusive; }
-  virtual auto context() -> uintptr { return _context; }
-  virtual auto device() -> string { return _device; }
-  virtual auto blocking() -> bool { return _blocking; }
-  virtual auto dynamic() -> bool { return _dynamic; }
-  virtual auto channels() -> uint { return _channels; }
-  virtual auto frequency() -> double { return _frequency; }
-  virtual auto latency() -> uint { return _latency; }
-
-  virtual auto setExclusive(bool exclusive) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setDevice(string device) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setDynamic(bool dynamic) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setChannels(uint channels) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setFrequency(double frequency) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setLatency(uint latency) -> bool;
-
-  virtual auto clear() -> void {}
-  virtual auto level() -> double { return 0.5; }
-  virtual auto output(const double samples[]) -> void {}
-
-protected:
-  virtual auto pending() -> bool;
-  virtual auto outputDynamic(const double samples[]) -> void;
-
-  bool _exclusive = false;
-  uintptr _context = 0;
-  string _device = "Default";
-  bool _blocking = false;
-  bool _dynamic = false;
-  uint _channels = 2;
-  double _frequency = 48000.0;
-  uint _latency = 0;
-
-  vector<nall::DSP::Resampler::Cubic> _resamplers;
-};
diff --git a/ruby/audio/asio.cpp b/ruby/audio/asio.cpp
index ed40bd7b..008819a7 100644
--- a/ruby/audio/asio.cpp
+++ b/ruby/audio/asio.cpp
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+#include <nall/windows/registry.hpp>
 #include "asio.hpp"
 
 struct AudioASIO : Audio {
diff --git a/ruby/audio.cpp b/ruby/audio/audio.cpp
similarity index 53%
rename from ruby/audio.cpp
rename to ruby/audio/audio.cpp
index 8b13e451..21200187 100644
--- a/ruby/audio.cpp
+++ b/ruby/audio/audio.cpp
@@ -41,126 +41,190 @@
 namespace ruby {
 
 auto Audio::setExclusive(bool exclusive) -> bool {
-  _exclusive = exclusive;
+  if(driver->exclusive == exclusive) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasExclusive()) return false;
+  if(!driver->setExclusive(driver->exclusive = exclusive)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Audio::setContext(uintptr context) -> bool {
-  _context = context;
+  if(driver->context == context) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasContext()) return false;
+  if(!driver->setContext(driver->context = context)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Audio::setDevice(string device) -> bool {
-  _device = device;
+  if(driver->device == device) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasDevice(device)) return false;
+  if(!driver->setDevice(driver->device = device)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Audio::setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool {
-  _blocking = blocking;
-  Audio::setFrequency(frequency());
+  if(driver->blocking == blocking) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasBlocking()) return false;
+  if(!driver->setBlocking(driver->blocking = blocking)) return false;
+  for(auto& resampler : resamplers) resampler.reset(driver->frequency);
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Audio::setDynamic(bool dynamic) -> bool {
-  _dynamic = dynamic;
+  if(driver->dynamic == dynamic) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasDynamic()) return false;
+  if(!driver->setDynamic(driver->dynamic = dynamic)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Audio::setChannels(uint channels) -> bool {
-  _channels = channels;
-  _resamplers.reset();
-  _resamplers.resize(channels);
-  Audio::setFrequency(frequency());
+  if(driver->channels == channels) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasChannels(channels)) return false;
+  if(!driver->setChannels(driver->channels = channels)) return false;
+  resamplers.reset();
+  resamplers.resize(channels);
+  for(auto& resampler : resamplers) resampler.reset(driver->frequency);
   return true;
 }
 
-auto Audio::setFrequency(double frequency) -> bool {
-  _frequency = frequency;
-  for(auto& resampler : _resamplers) {
-    resampler.reset(frequency, frequency);
-  }
+auto Audio::setFrequency(uint frequency) -> bool {
+  if(driver->frequency == frequency) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasFrequency(frequency)) return false;
+  if(!driver->setFrequency(driver->frequency = frequency)) return false;
+  for(auto& resampler : resamplers) resampler.reset(driver->frequency);
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Audio::setLatency(uint latency) -> bool {
-  _latency = latency;
+  if(driver->latency == latency) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasLatency(latency)) return false;
+  if(!driver->setLatency(driver->latency = latency)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
-//protected functions
+//
 
-auto Audio::pending() -> bool {
-  return _resamplers && _resamplers[0].pending();
+auto Audio::clear() -> void {
+  for(auto& resampler : resamplers) resampler.reset(driver->frequency);
+  return driver->clear();
 }
 
-auto Audio::outputDynamic(const double samples[]) -> void {
+auto Audio::level() -> double {
+  return driver->level();
+}
+
+auto Audio::output(const double samples[]) -> void {
+  if(!driver->dynamic) return driver->output(samples);
+
   auto maxDelta = 0.005;
-  double fillLevel = level();
-  double dynamicFrequency = ((1.0 - maxDelta) + 2.0 * fillLevel * maxDelta) * frequency();
-  for(auto& resampler : _resamplers) {
+  double fillLevel = driver->level();
+  double dynamicFrequency = ((1.0 - maxDelta) + 2.0 * fillLevel * maxDelta) * driver->frequency;
+  for(auto& resampler : resamplers) {
     resampler.setInputFrequency(dynamicFrequency);
     resampler.write(*samples++);
   }
+
+  while(resamplers.first().pending()) {
+    double samples[driver->channels];
+    for(uint n : range(driver->channels)) samples[n] = resamplers[n].read();
+    driver->output(samples);
+  }
 }
 
-//static functions
+//
 
-auto Audio::create(string driver) -> Audio* {
-  Audio* audio = nullptr;
+auto Audio::create(string driver) -> bool {
+  reset();
   if(!driver) driver = optimalDriver();
 
   #if defined(AUDIO_ALSA)
-  if(driver == "ALSA") audio = new AudioALSA;
+  if(driver == "ALSA") self.driver = new AudioALSA(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(AUDIO_AO)
-  if(driver == "libao") audio = new AudioAO;
+  if(driver == "libao") self.driver = new AudioAO(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(AUDIO_ASIO)
-  if(driver == "ASIO") audio = new AudioASIO;
+  if(driver == "ASIO") self.driver = new AudioASIO(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(AUDIO_DIRECTSOUND)
-  if(driver == "DirectSound") audio = new AudioDirectSound;
+  if(driver == "DirectSound") self.driver = new AudioDirectSound(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(AUDIO_OPENAL)
-  if(driver == "OpenAL") audio = new AudioOpenAL;
+  if(driver == "OpenAL") self.driver = new AudioOpenAL(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(AUDIO_OSS)
-  if(driver == "OSS") audio = new AudioOSS;
+  if(driver == "OSS") self.driver = new AudioOSS(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(AUDIO_PULSEAUDIO)
-  if(driver == "PulseAudio") audio = new AudioPulseAudio;
+  if(driver == "PulseAudio") self.driver = new AudioPulseAudio(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(AUDIO_PULSEAUDIOSIMPLE)
-  if(driver == "PulseAudioSimple") audio = new AudioPulseAudioSimple;
+  if(driver == "PulseAudioSimple") self.driver = new AudioPulseAudioSimple(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(AUDIO_WASAPI)
-  if(driver == "WASAPI") audio = new AudioWASAPI;
+  if(driver == "WASAPI") self.driver = new AudioWASAPI(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(AUDIO_XAUDIO2)
-  if(driver == "XAudio2") audio = new AudioXAudio2;
+  if(driver == "XAudio2") self.driver = new AudioXAudio2(*this);
   #endif
 
-  if(!audio) audio = new Audio;
+  if(!self.driver) self.driver = new AudioDriver(*this);
 
-  audio->_exclusive = audio->exclusive();
-  audio->_context = audio->context();
-  audio->_device = audio->defaultDevice();
-  audio->_blocking = audio->blocking();
-  audio->_dynamic = audio->dynamic();
-  audio->_channels = audio->defaultChannels();
-  audio->_frequency = audio->defaultFrequency();
-  audio->_latency = audio->defaultLatency();
+  return self.driver->create();
+}
 
-  return audio;
+auto Audio::hasDrivers() -> vector<string> {
+  return {
+
+  #if defined(AUDIO_ASIO)
+  "ASIO",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(AUDIO_WASAPI)
+  "WASAPI",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(AUDIO_XAUDIO2)
+  "XAudio2",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(AUDIO_DIRECTSOUND)
+  "DirectSound",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(AUDIO_ALSA)
+  "ALSA",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(AUDIO_OSS)
+  "OSS",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(AUDIO_OPENAL)
+  "OpenAL",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(AUDIO_PULSEAUDIO)
+  "PulseAudio",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(AUDIO_PULSEAUDIOSIMPLE)
+  "PulseAudioSimple",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(AUDIO_AO)
+  "libao",
+  #endif
+
+  "None"};
 }
 
 auto Audio::optimalDriver() -> string {
@@ -215,50 +279,4 @@ auto Audio::safestDriver() -> string {
   #endif
 }
 
-auto Audio::availableDrivers() -> vector<string> {
-  return {
-
-  #if defined(AUDIO_ASIO)
-  "ASIO",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(AUDIO_WASAPI)
-  "WASAPI",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(AUDIO_XAUDIO2)
-  "XAudio2",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(AUDIO_DIRECTSOUND)
-  "DirectSound",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(AUDIO_ALSA)
-  "ALSA",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(AUDIO_OSS)
-  "OSS",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(AUDIO_OPENAL)
-  "OpenAL",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(AUDIO_PULSEAUDIO)
-  "PulseAudio",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(AUDIO_PULSEAUDIOSIMPLE)
-  "PulseAudioSimple",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(AUDIO_AO)
-  "libao",
-  #endif
-
-  "None"};
-}
-
 }
diff --git a/ruby/audio/audio.hpp b/ruby/audio/audio.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8dae8f7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ruby/audio/audio.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
+struct Audio;
+
+struct AudioDriver {
+  AudioDriver(Audio& super) : super(super) {}
+  virtual ~AudioDriver() = default;
+
+  virtual auto create() -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto driverName() -> string { return "None"; }
+  virtual auto ready() -> bool { return true; }
+
+  virtual auto hasExclusive() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto hasContext() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto hasDevices() -> vector<string> { return {"Default"}; }
+  virtual auto hasBlocking() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto hasDynamic() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto hasChannels() -> vector<uint> { return {0}; }
+  virtual auto hasFrequencies() -> vector<uint> { return {0}; }
+  virtual auto hasLatencies() -> vector<uint> { return {0}; }
+
+  auto hasDevice(string device) -> bool { return (bool)hasDevices().find(device); }
+  auto hasChannels(uint channels) -> bool { return (bool)hasChannels().find(channels); }
+  auto hasFrequency(uint frequency) -> bool { return (bool)hasFrequencies().find(frequency); }
+  auto hasLatency(uint latency) -> bool { return (bool)hasLatencies().find(latency); }
+
+  virtual auto setExclusive(bool exclusive) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setDevice(string device) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setDynamic(bool dynamic) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setChannels(uint channels) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setFrequency(uint frequency) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setLatency(uint latency) -> bool { return true; }
+
+  virtual auto clear() -> void {}
+  virtual auto level() -> double { return 0.5; }
+  virtual auto output(const double samples[]) -> void {}
+
+protected:
+  Audio& super;
+  friend class Audio;
+
+  bool exclusive = false;
+  uintptr context = 0;
+  string device = "Default";
+  bool blocking = false;
+  bool dynamic = false;
+  uint channels = 0;
+  uint frequency = 0;
+  uint latency = 0;
+};
+
+struct Audio {
+  static auto hasDrivers() -> vector<string>;
+  static auto hasDriver(string driver) -> bool { return (bool)hasDrivers().find(driver); }
+  static auto optimalDriver() -> string;
+  static auto safestDriver() -> string;
+
+  Audio() : self(*this) {}
+  explicit operator bool() const { return (bool)driver; }
+  auto reset() -> void { driver.reset(); }
+  auto create(string driver = "") -> bool;
+  auto driverName() -> string { return driver->driverName(); }
+  auto ready() -> bool { return driver->ready(); }
+
+  auto hasExclusive() -> bool { return driver->hasExclusive(); }
+  auto hasContext() -> bool { return driver->hasContext(); }
+  auto hasDevices() -> vector<string> { return driver->hasDevices(); }
+  auto hasBlocking() -> bool { return driver->hasBlocking(); }
+  auto hasDynamic() -> bool { return driver->hasDynamic(); }
+  auto hasChannels() -> vector<uint> { return driver->hasChannels(); }
+  auto hasFrequencies() -> vector<uint> { return driver->hasFrequencies(); }
+  auto hasLatencies() -> vector<uint> { return driver->hasLatencies(); }
+
+  auto hasDevice(string device) -> bool { return driver->hasDevice(device); }
+  auto hasChannels(uint channels) -> bool { return driver->hasChannels(channels); }
+  auto hasFrequency(uint frequency) -> bool { return driver->hasFrequency(frequency); }
+  auto hasLatency(uint latency) -> bool { return driver->hasLatency(latency); }
+
+  auto exclusive() -> bool { return driver->exclusive; }
+  auto context() -> uintptr { return driver->context; }
+  auto device() -> string { return driver->device; }
+  auto blocking() -> bool { return driver->blocking; }
+  auto dynamic() -> bool { return driver->dynamic; }
+  auto channels() -> uint { return driver->channels; }
+  auto frequency() -> uint { return driver->frequency; }
+  auto latency() -> uint { return driver->latency; }
+
+  auto setExclusive(bool exclusive) -> bool;
+  auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool;
+  auto setDevice(string device) -> bool;
+  auto setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool;
+  auto setDynamic(bool dynamic) -> bool;
+  auto setChannels(uint channels) -> bool;
+  auto setFrequency(uint frequency) -> bool;
+  auto setLatency(uint latency) -> bool;
+
+  auto clear() -> void;
+  auto level() -> double;
+  auto output(const double samples[]) -> void;
+
+protected:
+  Audio& self;
+  unique_pointer<AudioDriver> driver;
+  vector<nall::DSP::Resampler::Cubic> resamplers;
+};
diff --git a/ruby/audio/directsound.cpp b/ruby/audio/directsound.cpp
index 203e43a6..428a4aa3 100644
--- a/ruby/audio/directsound.cpp
+++ b/ruby/audio/directsound.cpp
@@ -1,8 +1,15 @@
 #include <dsound.h>
 
 struct AudioDirectSound : Audio {
-  AudioDirectSound() { initialize(); }
-  ~AudioDirectSound() { terminate(); }
+  AudioDirectSound() {
+    Audio::setFrequency(48000.0);
+    Audio::setLatency(40);
+    initialize();
+  }
+
+  ~AudioDirectSound() {
+    terminate();
+  }
 
   auto driver() -> string override { return "DirectSound"; }
   auto ready() -> bool override { return _ready; }
@@ -19,6 +26,9 @@ struct AudioDirectSound : Audio {
     return {40, 60, 80, 100};
   }
 
+  auto defaultFrequency() -> double override { return 48000.0; }
+  auto defaultLatency() -> uint override { return 40; }
+
   auto setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool override {
     if(blocking == Audio::blocking()) return true;
     if(!Audio::setBlocking(blocking)) return false;
diff --git a/ruby/audio/openal.cpp b/ruby/audio/openal.cpp
index 27071858..12b30e97 100644
--- a/ruby/audio/openal.cpp
+++ b/ruby/audio/openal.cpp
@@ -7,8 +7,17 @@
 #endif
 
 struct AudioOpenAL : Audio {
-  AudioOpenAL() { initialize(); }
-  ~AudioOpenAL() { terminate(); }
+  AudioOpenAL() {
+    Audio::setDevice(availableDevices().first());
+    Audio::setChannels(2);
+    Audio::setFrequency(48000.0);
+    Audio::setLatency(20);
+    initialize();
+  }
+
+  ~AudioOpenAL() {
+    terminate();
+  }
 
   auto driver() -> string override { return "OpenAL"; }
   auto ready() -> bool override { return _ready; }
@@ -21,7 +30,12 @@ struct AudioOpenAL : Audio {
 
   auto availableDevices() -> vector<string> override {
     vector<string> devices;
-    for(auto& device : queryDevices()) devices.append(device);
+    if(const char* list = alcGetString(nullptr, ALC_DEVICE_SPECIFIER)) {
+      while(list && *list) {
+        result.append(list);
+        list += strlen(list) + 1;
+      }
+    }
     return devices;
   }
 
@@ -37,38 +51,35 @@ struct AudioOpenAL : Audio {
     return {20, 40, 60, 80, 100};
   }
 
+  auto context() -> uintptr override { return 0; }
+  auto dynamic() -> bool override { return false; }
+
   auto setDevice(string device) -> bool override {
-    if(device == this->device()) return true;
+    if(device == Audio::device()) return true;
     if(!Audio::setDevice(device)) return false;
     return initialize();
   }
 
   auto setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool override {
-    if(blocking == this->blocking()) return true;
+    if(blocking == Audio::blocking()) return true;
     if(!Audio::setBlocking(blocking)) return false;
     return true;
   }
 
-  auto setChannels(uint channels) -> bool override {
-    if(channels == this->channels()) return true;
-    if(!Audio::setChannels(channels)) return false;
-    return true;
-  }
-
   auto setFrequency(double frequency) -> bool override {
-    if(frequency == this->frequency()) return true;
+    if(frequency == Audio::frequency()) return true;
     if(!Audio::setFrequency(frequency)) return false;
     return initialize();
   }
 
   auto setLatency(uint latency) -> bool override {
-    if(latency == this->latency()) return true;
+    if(latency == Audio::latency()) return true;
     if(!Audio::setLatency(latency)) return false;
     if(ready()) updateLatency();
     return true;
   }
 
-  auto output(const double samples[]) -> void override {
+  auto write(const double samples[]) -> void override {
     _buffer[_bufferLength]  = (uint16_t)sclamp<16>(samples[0] * 32767.0) <<  0;
     _buffer[_bufferLength] |= (uint16_t)sclamp<16>(samples[1] * 32767.0) << 16;
     if(++_bufferLength < _bufferSize) return;
@@ -171,20 +182,6 @@ private:
     _buffer = nullptr;
   }
 
-  auto queryDevices() -> vector<string> {
-    vector<string> result;
-
-    const char* list = alcGetString(nullptr, ALC_DEVICE_SPECIFIER);
-    if(!list) return result;
-
-    while(list && *list) {
-      result.append(list);
-      list += strlen(list) + 1;
-    }
-
-    return result;
-  }
-
   auto updateLatency() -> void {
     delete[] _buffer;
     _bufferSize = _frequency * _latency / 1000.0 + 0.5;
diff --git a/ruby/audio/oss.cpp b/ruby/audio/oss.cpp
index d20869ad..a2d2c702 100644
--- a/ruby/audio/oss.cpp
+++ b/ruby/audio/oss.cpp
@@ -13,77 +13,54 @@
   #define SNDCTL_DSP_POLICY _IOW('P', 45, int)
 #endif
 
-struct AudioOSS : Audio {
-  AudioOSS() { initialize(); }
+struct AudioOSS : AudioDriver {
+  AudioOSS& self;
+
+  AudioOSS(Audio& super) : AudioDriver(super), self(*this) {}
   ~AudioOSS() { terminate(); }
 
-  auto driver() -> string override { return "OSS"; }
+  auto create() -> bool {
+    super.setDevice("/dev/dsp");
+    super.setChannels(2);
+    super.setFrequency(48000);
+    super.setLatency(3);
+    buffer.resize(64);
+    return initialize();
+  }
+
+  auto driverName() -> string override { return "OSS"; }
   auto ready() -> bool override { return _fd >= 0; }
 
-  auto hasDevice() -> bool override { return true; }
-  auto hasDynamic() -> bool override { return true; }
   auto hasBlocking() -> bool override { return true; }
-  auto hasChannels() -> bool override { return true; }
-  auto hasFrequency() -> bool override { return true; }
-  auto hasLatency() -> bool override { return true; }
+  auto hasDynamic() -> bool override { return true; }
 
-  auto availableDevices() -> vector<string> override {
+  auto hasDevices() -> vector<string> override {
     vector<string> devices;
     devices.append("/dev/dsp");
     for(auto& device : directory::files("/dev/", "dsp?*")) devices.append(string{"/dev/", device});
     return devices;
   }
 
-  auto defaultChannels() -> uint override { return 2; }
-  auto defaultFrequency() -> double override { return 48000.0; }
-  auto defaultLatency() -> uint override { return 3; }
-
-  auto availableChannels() -> vector<uint> override {
+  auto hasChannels() -> vector<uint> override {
     return {1, 2};
   }
 
-  auto availableFrequencies() -> vector<double> override {
-    return {44100.0, 48000.0, 96000.0};
+  auto hasFrequencies() -> vector<uint> override {
+    return {44100, 48000, 96000};
   }
 
-  auto availableLatencies() -> vector<uint> override {
+  auto hasLatencies() -> vector<uint> override {
     return {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
   }
 
-  auto setDevice(string device) -> bool override {
-    if(device == Audio::device()) return true;
-    if(!Audio::setDevice(device)) return false;
-    return initialize();
-  }
+  auto setDevice(string device) -> bool override { return initialize(); }
+  auto setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool override { return updateBlocking(); }
+  auto setChannels(uint channels) -> bool override { return initialize(); }
+  auto setFrequency(uint frequency) -> bool override { return initialize(); }
+  auto setLatency(uint latency) -> bool override { return initialize(); }
 
-  auto setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool override {
-    if(blocking == Audio::blocking()) return true;
-    if(!Audio::setBlocking(blocking)) return false;
-    return updateBlocking();
-  }
-
-  auto setDynamic(bool dynamic) -> bool override {
-    if(dynamic == Audio::dynamic()) return true;
-    if(!Audio::setDynamic(dynamic)) return false;
-    return true;
-  }
-
-  auto setChannels(uint channels) -> bool override {
-    if(channels == Audio::channels()) return true;
-    if(!Audio::setChannels(channels)) return false;
-    return initialize();
-  }
-
-  auto setFrequency(double frequency) -> bool override {
-    if(frequency == Audio::frequency()) return true;
-    if(!Audio::setFrequency(frequency)) return false;
-    return initialize();
-  }
-
-  auto setLatency(uint latency) -> bool override {
-    if(latency == Audio::latency()) return true;
-    if(!Audio::setLatency(latency)) return false;
-    return initialize();
+  auto clear() -> void override {
+    buffer.resize(64);
   }
 
   auto level() -> double override {
@@ -95,18 +72,9 @@ struct AudioOSS : Audio {
   auto output(const double samples[]) -> void override {
     if(!ready()) return;
 
-    if(!_dynamic) {
-      for(uint n : range(channels())) {
-        sample(sclamp<16>(samples[n] * 32767.0));
-      }
-    } else {
-      Audio::outputDynamic(samples);
-      while(pending()) {
-        for(auto& resampler : _resamplers) {
-          auto sample = (uint16_t)sclamp<16>(resampler.read() * 32767.0);
-          auto unused = write(_fd, &sample, 2);
-        }
-      }
+    for(uint n : range(self.channels)) {
+      buffer.write(sclamp<16>(samples[n] * 32767.0));
+      if(buffer.full()) write(_fd, buffer.data(), buffer.size<uint8_t>());
     }
   }
 
@@ -114,23 +82,20 @@ private:
   auto initialize() -> bool {
     terminate();
 
-    if(!availableDevices().find(_device)) {
-      Audio::setDevice(availableDevices().left());
-    }
-    Audio::setChannels(channels());
+    if(!hasDevices().find(self.device)) self.device = hasDevices().first();
 
-    _fd = open(_device, O_WRONLY, O_NONBLOCK);
+    _fd = open(self.device, O_WRONLY, O_NONBLOCK);
     if(_fd < 0) return false;
 
     int cooked = 1;
     ioctl(_fd, SNDCTL_DSP_COOKEDMODE, &cooked);
     //policy: 0 = minimum latency (higher CPU usage); 10 = maximum latency (lower CPU usage)
-    int policy = min(10, _latency);
+    int policy = min(10, self.latency);
     ioctl(_fd, SNDCTL_DSP_POLICY, &policy);
-    int channels = _channels;
+    int channels = self.channels;
     ioctl(_fd, SNDCTL_DSP_CHANNELS, &channels);
     ioctl(_fd, SNDCTL_DSP_SETFMT, &_format);
-    int frequency = _frequency;
+    int frequency = self.frequency;
     ioctl(_fd, SNDCTL_DSP_SPEED, &frequency);
     updateBlocking();
     audio_buf_info info;
@@ -150,23 +115,14 @@ private:
     if(!ready()) return false;
     auto flags = fcntl(_fd, F_GETFL);
     if(flags < 0) return false;
-    _blocking ? flags &=~ O_NONBLOCK : flags |= O_NONBLOCK;
+    self.blocking ? flags &=~ O_NONBLOCK : flags |= O_NONBLOCK;
     fcntl(_fd, F_SETFL, flags);
     return true;
   }
 
-  auto sample(uint16_t sample) -> void {
-    _outputBuffer[_outputOffset++] = sample;
-    if(_outputOffset >= sizeof(_outputBuffer) / sizeof(uint16_t)) {
-      write(_fd, &_outputBuffer, sizeof(_outputBuffer));
-      _outputOffset = 0;
-    }
-  }
-
   int _fd = -1;
   int _format = AFMT_S16_LE;
   int _bufferSize = 1;
 
-  uint _outputOffset = 0;
-  uint16_t _outputBuffer[64];
+  queue<int16_t> buffer;
 };
diff --git a/ruby/input.hpp b/ruby/input.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 7fdd64e4..00000000
--- a/ruby/input.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,31 +0,0 @@
-struct Input {
-  static auto create(string driver = "") -> Input*;
-  static auto optimalDriver() -> string;
-  static auto safestDriver() -> string;
-  static auto availableDrivers() -> vector<string>;
-
-  virtual ~Input() = default;
-
-  virtual auto driver() -> string { return "None"; }
-  virtual auto ready() -> bool { return true; }
-
-  virtual auto hasContext() -> bool { return false; }
-
-  virtual auto context() -> uintptr { return _context; }
-
-  virtual auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool;
-
-  virtual auto acquired() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto acquire() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto release() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto poll() -> vector<shared_pointer<nall::HID::Device>> { return {}; }
-  virtual auto rumble(uint64_t id, bool enable) -> bool { return false; }
-
-  auto onChange(const function<void (shared_pointer<nall::HID::Device>, uint, uint, int16_t, int16_t)>&) -> void;
-  auto doChange(shared_pointer<nall::HID::Device> device, uint group, uint input, int16_t oldValue, int16_t newValue) -> void;
-
-protected:
-  uintptr _context = 0;
-
-  function<void (shared_pointer<nall::HID::Device> device, uint group, uint input, int16_t oldValue, int16_t newValue)> _onChange;
-};
diff --git a/ruby/input.cpp b/ruby/input/input.cpp
similarity index 63%
rename from ruby/input.cpp
rename to ruby/input/input.cpp
index accf2db4..b3193526 100644
--- a/ruby/input.cpp
+++ b/ruby/input/input.cpp
@@ -25,55 +25,107 @@
 namespace ruby {
 
 auto Input::setContext(uintptr context) -> bool {
-  _context = context;
+  if(driver->context == context) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasContext()) return false;
+  if(!driver->setContext(driver->context = context)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
+//
+
+auto Input::acquired() -> bool {
+  return driver->acquired();
+}
+
+auto Input::acquire() -> bool {
+  return driver->acquire();
+}
+
+auto Input::release() -> bool {
+  return driver->release();
+}
+
+auto Input::poll() -> vector<shared_pointer<nall::HID::Device>> {
+  return driver->poll();
+}
+
+auto Input::rumble(uint64_t id, bool enable) -> bool {
+  return driver->rumble(id, enable);
+}
+
+//
+
 auto Input::onChange(const function<void (shared_pointer<HID::Device>, uint, uint, int16_t, int16_t)>& onChange) -> void {
-  _onChange = onChange;
+  change = onChange;
 }
 
 auto Input::doChange(shared_pointer<HID::Device> device, uint group, uint input, int16_t oldValue, int16_t newValue) -> void {
-  if(_onChange) _onChange(device, group, input, oldValue, newValue);
+  if(change) change(device, group, input, oldValue, newValue);
 }
 
-//protected functions
+//
 
-//static functions
-
-auto Input::create(string driver) -> Input* {
-  Input* input = nullptr;
+auto Input::create(string driver) -> bool {
+  reset();
   if(!driver) driver = optimalDriver();
 
   #if defined(INPUT_WINDOWS)
-  if(driver == "Windows") input = new InputWindows;
+  if(driver == "Windows") self.driver = new InputWindows(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(INPUT_QUARTZ)
-  if(driver == "Quartz") input = new InputQuartz;
+  if(driver == "Quartz") self.driver = new InputQuartz(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(INPUT_CARBON)
-  if(driver == "Carbon") input = new InputCarbon;
+  if(driver == "Carbon") self.driver = new InputCarbon(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(INPUT_UDEV)
-  if(driver == "udev") input = new InputUdev;
+  if(driver == "udev") self.driver = new InputUdev(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(INPUT_SDL)
-  if(driver == "SDL") input = new InputSDL;
+  if(driver == "SDL") self.driver = new InputSDL(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(INPUT_XLIB)
-  if(driver == "Xlib") input = new InputXlib;
+  if(driver == "Xlib") self.driver = new InputXlib(*this);
   #endif
 
-  if(!input) input = new Input;
+  if(!self.driver) self.driver = new InputDriver(*this);
 
-  input->_context = input->context();
+  return self.driver->create();
+}
 
-  return input;
+auto Input::hasDrivers() -> vector<string> {
+  return {
+
+  #if defined(INPUT_WINDOWS)
+  "Windows",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(INPUT_QUARTZ)
+  "Quartz",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(INPUT_CARBON)
+  "Carbon",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(INPUT_UDEV)
+  "udev",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(INPUT_SDL)
+  "SDL",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(INPUT_XLIB)
+  "Xlib",
+  #endif
+
+  "None"};
 }
 
 auto Input::optimalDriver() -> string {
@@ -112,34 +164,4 @@ auto Input::safestDriver() -> string {
   #endif
 }
 
-auto Input::availableDrivers() -> vector<string> {
-  return {
-
-  #if defined(INPUT_WINDOWS)
-  "Windows",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(INPUT_QUARTZ)
-  "Quartz",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(INPUT_CARBON)
-  "Carbon",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(INPUT_UDEV)
-  "udev",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(INPUT_SDL)
-  "SDL",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(INPUT_XLIB)
-  "Xlib",
-  #endif
-
-  "None"};
-}
-
 }
diff --git a/ruby/input/input.hpp b/ruby/input/input.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..15100cca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ruby/input/input.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+struct Input;
+
+struct InputDriver {
+  InputDriver(Input& super) : super(super) {}
+  virtual ~InputDriver() = default;
+
+  virtual auto create() -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto driverName() -> string { return "None"; }
+  virtual auto ready() -> bool { return true; }
+
+  virtual auto hasContext() -> bool { return false; }
+
+  virtual auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool { return true; }
+
+  virtual auto acquired() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto acquire() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto release() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto poll() -> vector<shared_pointer<nall::HID::Device>> { return {}; }
+  virtual auto rumble(uint64_t id, bool enable) -> bool { return false; }
+
+protected:
+  Input& super;
+  friend class Input;
+
+  uintptr context = 0;
+};
+
+struct Input {
+  static auto hasDrivers() -> vector<string>;
+  static auto hasDriver(string driver) -> bool { return (bool)hasDrivers().find(driver); }
+  static auto optimalDriver() -> string;
+  static auto safestDriver() -> string;
+
+  Input() : self(*this) {}
+  explicit operator bool() const { return (bool)driver; }
+  auto reset() -> void { driver.reset(); }
+  auto create(string driver = "") -> bool;
+  auto driverName() -> string { return driver->driverName(); }
+  auto ready() -> bool { return driver->ready(); }
+
+  auto hasContext() -> bool { return driver->hasContext(); }
+
+  auto context() -> uintptr { return driver->context; }
+
+  auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool;
+
+  auto acquired() -> bool;
+  auto acquire() -> bool;
+  auto release() -> bool;
+  auto poll() -> vector<shared_pointer<nall::HID::Device>>;
+  auto rumble(uint64_t id, bool enable) -> bool;
+
+  auto onChange(const function<void (shared_pointer<nall::HID::Device>, uint, uint, int16_t, int16_t)>&) -> void;
+  auto doChange(shared_pointer<nall::HID::Device> device, uint group, uint input, int16_t oldValue, int16_t newValue) -> void;
+
+protected:
+  Input& self;
+  unique_pointer<InputDriver> driver;
+  function<void (shared_pointer<nall::HID::Device> device, uint group, uint input, int16_t oldValue, int16_t newValue)> change;
+};
diff --git a/ruby/input/sdl.cpp b/ruby/input/sdl.cpp
index 21547f17..6e399673 100644
--- a/ruby/input/sdl.cpp
+++ b/ruby/input/sdl.cpp
@@ -6,38 +6,32 @@
 #include "mouse/xlib.cpp"
 #include "joypad/sdl.cpp"
 
-struct InputSDL : Input {
-  InputSDL() : _keyboard(*this), _mouse(*this), _joypad(*this) { initialize(); }
+struct InputSDL : InputDriver {
+  InputSDL& self;
+
+  InputSDL(Input& super) : InputDriver(super), self(*this), keyboard(super), mouse(super), joypad(super) {}
   ~InputSDL() { terminate(); }
 
-  auto driver() -> string override { return "SDL"; }
-  auto ready() -> bool override { return _ready; }
-
-  auto hasContext() -> bool override { return true; }
-
-  auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool override {
-    if(context == Input::context()) return true;
-    if(!Input::setContext(context)) return false;
+  auto create() -> bool {
     return initialize();
   }
 
-  auto acquired() -> bool override {
-    return _mouse.acquired();
-  }
+  auto driverName() -> string override { return "SDL"; }
+  auto ready() -> bool override { return isReady; }
 
-  auto acquire() -> bool override {
-    return _mouse.acquire();
-  }
+  auto hasContext() -> bool override { return true; }
 
-  auto release() -> bool override {
-    return _mouse.release();
-  }
+  auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool override { return initialize(); }
+
+  auto acquired() -> bool override { return mouse.acquired(); }
+  auto acquire() -> bool override { return mouse.acquire(); }
+  auto release() -> bool override { return mouse.release(); }
 
   auto poll() -> vector<shared_pointer<HID::Device>> override {
     vector<shared_pointer<HID::Device>> devices;
-    _keyboard.poll(devices);
-    _mouse.poll(devices);
-    _joypad.poll(devices);
+    keyboard.poll(devices);
+    mouse.poll(devices);
+    joypad.poll(devices);
     return devices;
   }
 
@@ -48,23 +42,23 @@ struct InputSDL : Input {
 private:
   auto initialize() -> bool {
     terminate();
-    if(!_context) return false;
-    if(!_keyboard.initialize()) return false;
-    if(!_mouse.initialize(_context)) return false;
-    if(!_joypad.initialize()) return false;
-    return _ready = true;
+    if(!self.context) return false;
+    if(!keyboard.initialize()) return false;
+    if(!mouse.initialize(self.context)) return false;
+    if(!joypad.initialize()) return false;
+    return isReady = true;
   }
 
   auto terminate() -> void {
-    _ready = false;
-    _keyboard.terminate();
-    _mouse.terminate();
-    _joypad.terminate();
+    isReady = false;
+    keyboard.terminate();
+    mouse.terminate();
+    joypad.terminate();
   }
 
-  bool _ready = false;
+  bool isReady = false;
 
-  InputKeyboardXlib _keyboard;
-  InputMouseXlib _mouse;
-  InputJoypadSDL _joypad;
+  InputKeyboardXlib keyboard;
+  InputMouseXlib mouse;
+  InputJoypadSDL joypad;
 };
diff --git a/ruby/ruby.cpp b/ruby/ruby.cpp
index 7366ea7e..5e537105 100644
--- a/ruby/ruby.cpp
+++ b/ruby/ruby.cpp
@@ -24,6 +24,6 @@ using namespace ruby;
   #include <windows.h>
 #endif
 
-#include "video.cpp"
-#include "audio.cpp"
-#include "input.cpp"
+#include <ruby/video/video.cpp>
+#include <ruby/audio/audio.cpp>
+#include <ruby/input/input.cpp>
diff --git a/ruby/ruby.hpp b/ruby/ruby.hpp
index d9699078..5fcae08d 100644
--- a/ruby/ruby.hpp
+++ b/ruby/ruby.hpp
@@ -7,23 +7,27 @@
 #include <nall/hid.hpp>
 #include <nall/image.hpp>
 #include <nall/matrix.hpp>
+#include <nall/queue.hpp>
 #include <nall/range.hpp>
 #include <nall/set.hpp>
 #include <nall/shared-pointer.hpp>
 #include <nall/string.hpp>
+#include <nall/unique-pointer.hpp>
 #include <nall/vector.hpp>
 #include <nall/dsp/resampler/cubic.hpp>
 #include <nall/hash/crc32.hpp>
 
 using nall::function;
+using nall::queue;
 using nall::shared_pointer;
 using nall::string;
+using nall::unique_pointer;
 using nall::vector;
 
 namespace ruby {
 
-#include "video.hpp"
-#include "audio.hpp"
-#include "input.hpp"
+#include <ruby/video/video.hpp>
+#include <ruby/audio/audio.hpp>
+#include <ruby/input/input.hpp>
 
 }
diff --git a/ruby/video.hpp b/ruby/video.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index f71a1c9f..00000000
--- a/ruby/video.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,59 +0,0 @@
-struct Video {
-  static auto create(string driver = "") -> Video*;
-  static auto optimalDriver() -> string;
-  static auto safestDriver() -> string;
-  static auto availableDrivers() -> vector<string>;
-
-  virtual ~Video() = default;
-
-  virtual auto driver() -> string { return "None"; }
-  virtual auto ready() -> bool { return true; }
-
-  virtual auto hasExclusive() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasContext() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasBlocking() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasFlush() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasFormat() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasSmooth() -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto hasShader() -> bool { return false; }
-
-  virtual auto availableFormats() -> vector<string> { return {"Default"}; }
-
-  virtual auto defaultFormat() -> string { return availableFormats().first(); }
-
-  virtual auto exclusive() -> bool { return _exclusive; }
-  virtual auto context() -> uintptr { return _context; }
-  virtual auto blocking() -> bool { return _blocking; }
-  virtual auto flush() -> bool { return _flush; }
-  virtual auto format() -> string { return _format; }
-  virtual auto smooth() -> bool { return _smooth; }
-  virtual auto shader() -> string { return _shader; }
-
-  virtual auto setExclusive(bool exclusive) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setFlush(bool flush) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setFormat(string format) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setSmooth(bool smooth) -> bool;
-  virtual auto setShader(string shader) -> bool;
-
-  virtual auto clear() -> void {}
-  virtual auto acquire(uint32_t*& data, uint& pitch, uint width, uint height) -> bool { return false; }
-  virtual auto release() -> void {}
-  virtual auto output() -> void {}
-  virtual auto poll() -> void {}
-
-  auto onUpdate(const function<void (uint, uint)>&) -> void;
-  auto doUpdate(uint width, uint height) -> void;
-
-protected:
-  bool _exclusive = false;
-  uintptr _context = 0;
-  bool _blocking = false;
-  bool _flush = false;
-  string _format = "Default";
-  bool _smooth = false;
-  string _shader = "";
-
-  function<void (uint, uint)> _onUpdate;
-};
diff --git a/ruby/video/glx2.cpp b/ruby/video/glx2.cpp
index 37a2246f..b1668774 100644
--- a/ruby/video/glx2.cpp
+++ b/ruby/video/glx2.cpp
@@ -21,46 +21,36 @@
   #error "ruby::OpenGL2: unsupported platform"
 #endif
 
-struct VideoGLX2 : Video {
-  VideoGLX2() { initialize(); }
+struct VideoGLX2 : VideoDriver {
+  VideoGLX2& self;
+
+  VideoGLX2(Video& super) : VideoDriver(super), self(*this) {}
   ~VideoGLX2() { terminate(); }
 
-  auto driver() -> string override { return "OpenGL2"; }
+  auto create() -> bool {
+    super.setFormat("RGB24");
+    return initialize();
+  }
+
+  auto driverName() -> string override { return "OpenGL2"; }
   auto ready() -> bool override { return _ready; }
 
   auto hasContext() -> bool override { return true; }
   auto hasBlocking() -> bool override { return true; }
   auto hasFlush() -> bool override { return true; }
-  auto hasFormat() -> bool override { return true; }
+  auto hasFormats() -> vector<string> override { return {"RGB24"}; }
   auto hasSmooth() -> bool override { return true; }
 
-  auto availableFormats() -> vector<string> override {
-    return {"RGB24", "RGB30"};
-  }
-
   auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool override {
-    if(context == Video::context()) return true;
-    if(!Video::setContext(context)) return false;
     return initialize();
   }
 
   auto setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool override {
-    if(blocking == Video::blocking()) return true;
-    if(!Video::setBlocking(blocking)) return false;
     if(glXSwapInterval) glXSwapInterval(blocking);
     return true;
   }
 
-  auto setFlush(bool flush) -> bool override {
-    if(flush == Video::flush()) return true;
-    if(!Video::setFlush(flush)) return false;
-    return true;
-  }
-
   auto setFormat(string format) -> bool override {
-    if(format == Video::format()) return true;
-    if(!Video::setFormat(format)) return false;
-
     if(format == "RGB24") {
       _glFormat = GL_UNSIGNED_INT_8_8_8_8_REV;
       return initialize();
@@ -74,12 +64,6 @@ struct VideoGLX2 : Video {
     return false;
   }
 
-  auto setSmooth(bool smooth) -> bool override {
-    if(smooth == Video::smooth()) return true;
-    if(!Video::setSmooth(smooth)) return false;
-    return true;
-  }
-
   auto clear() -> void override {
     if(!ready()) return;
     memory::fill<uint32_t>(_glBuffer, _glWidth * _glHeight);
@@ -90,21 +74,17 @@ struct VideoGLX2 : Video {
   }
 
   auto acquire(uint32_t*& data, uint& pitch, uint width, uint height) -> bool override {
-    if(!ready()) return false;
     if(width != _width || height != _height) resize(width, height);
     pitch = _glWidth * sizeof(uint32_t);
     return data = _glBuffer;
   }
 
   auto release() -> void override {
-    if(!ready()) return;
   }
 
   auto output() -> void override {
-    if(!ready()) return;
-
     XWindowAttributes parent, child;
-    XGetWindowAttributes(_display, (Window)_context, &parent);
+    XGetWindowAttributes(_display, (Window)self.context, &parent);
     XGetWindowAttributes(_display, _window, &child);
     if(child.width != parent.width || child.height != parent.height) {
       XResizeWindow(_display, _window, parent.width, parent.height);
@@ -112,8 +92,8 @@ struct VideoGLX2 : Video {
 
     glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_S, GL_CLAMP_TO_BORDER);
     glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_CLAMP_TO_BORDER);
-    glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, _smooth ? GL_LINEAR : GL_NEAREST);
-    glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER, _smooth ? GL_LINEAR : GL_NEAREST);
+    glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, self.smooth ? GL_LINEAR : GL_NEAREST);
+    glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER, self.smooth ? GL_LINEAR : GL_NEAREST);
 
     glMatrixMode(GL_PROJECTION);
     glLoadIdentity();
@@ -139,7 +119,7 @@ struct VideoGLX2 : Video {
     glFlush();
 
     if(_isDoubleBuffered) glXSwapBuffers(_display, _glXWindow);
-    if(flush()) glFinish();
+    if(self.flush) glFinish();
   }
 
   auto poll() -> void override {
@@ -149,7 +129,7 @@ struct VideoGLX2 : Video {
       if(event.type == Expose) {
         XWindowAttributes attributes;
         XGetWindowAttributes(_display, _window, &attributes);
-        doUpdate(attributes.width, attributes.height);
+        super.doUpdate(attributes.width, attributes.height);
       }
     }
   }
@@ -157,9 +137,9 @@ struct VideoGLX2 : Video {
 private:
   auto initialize() -> bool {
     terminate();
-    if(!_context) return false;
+    if(!self.context) return false;
 
-    _display = XOpenDisplay(0);
+    _display = XOpenDisplay(nullptr);
     _screen = DefaultScreen(_display);
 
     int versionMajor = 0, versionMinor = 0;
@@ -167,11 +147,11 @@ private:
     if(versionMajor < 1 || (versionMajor == 1 && versionMinor < 2)) return false;
 
     XWindowAttributes windowAttributes;
-    XGetWindowAttributes(_display, (Window)_context, &windowAttributes);
+    XGetWindowAttributes(_display, (Window)self.context, &windowAttributes);
 
-    int redDepth   = Video::format() == "RGB30" ? 10 : 8;
-    int greenDepth = Video::format() == "RGB30" ? 10 : 8;
-    int blueDepth  = Video::format() == "RGB30" ? 10 : 8;
+    int redDepth   = self.format == "RGB30" ? 10 : 8;
+    int greenDepth = self.format == "RGB30" ? 10 : 8;
+    int blueDepth  = self.format == "RGB30" ? 10 : 8;
 
     int attributeList[] = {
       GLX_DRAWABLE_TYPE, GLX_WINDOW_BIT,
@@ -192,7 +172,7 @@ private:
     XSetWindowAttributes attributes = {};
     attributes.colormap = _colormap;
     attributes.border_pixel = 0;
-    _window = XCreateWindow(_display, (Window)_context, 0, 0, windowAttributes.width, windowAttributes.height,
+    _window = XCreateWindow(_display, (Window)self.context, 0, 0, windowAttributes.width, windowAttributes.height,
       0, vi->depth, InputOutput, vi->visual, CWColormap | CWBorderPixel, &attributes);
     XSelectInput(_display, _window, ExposureMask);
     XSetWindowBackground(_display, _window, 0);
@@ -210,7 +190,7 @@ private:
     if(!glXSwapInterval) glXSwapInterval = (int (*)(int))glGetProcAddress("glXSwapIntervalMESA");
     if(!glXSwapInterval) glXSwapInterval = (int (*)(int))glGetProcAddress("glXSwapIntervalSGI");
 
-    if(glXSwapInterval) glXSwapInterval(_blocking);
+    if(glXSwapInterval) glXSwapInterval(self.blocking);
 
     int value = 0;
     glXGetConfig(_display, vi, GLX_DOUBLEBUFFER, &value);
diff --git a/ruby/video.cpp b/ruby/video/video.cpp
similarity index 57%
rename from ruby/video.cpp
rename to ruby/video/video.cpp
index 020a0fb4..cde33e75 100644
--- a/ruby/video.cpp
+++ b/ruby/video/video.cpp
@@ -37,103 +37,173 @@
 namespace ruby {
 
 auto Video::setExclusive(bool exclusive) -> bool {
-  _exclusive = exclusive;
+  if(driver->exclusive == exclusive) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasExclusive()) return false;
+  if(!driver->setExclusive(driver->exclusive = exclusive)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Video::setContext(uintptr context) -> bool {
-  _context = context;
+  if(driver->context == context) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasContext()) return false;
+  if(!driver->setContext(driver->context = context)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Video::setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool {
-  _blocking = blocking;
+  if(driver->blocking == blocking) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasBlocking()) return false;
+  if(!driver->setBlocking(driver->blocking = blocking)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Video::setFlush(bool flush) -> bool {
-  _flush = flush;
+  if(driver->flush == flush) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasFlush()) return false;
+  if(!driver->setFlush(driver->flush = flush)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Video::setFormat(string format) -> bool {
-  _format = format;
+  if(driver->format == format) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasFormat(format)) return false;
+  if(!driver->setFormat(driver->format = format)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Video::setSmooth(bool smooth) -> bool {
-  _smooth = smooth;
+  if(driver->smooth == smooth) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasSmooth()) return false;
+  if(!driver->setSmooth(driver->smooth = smooth)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
 auto Video::setShader(string shader) -> bool {
-  _shader = shader;
+  if(driver->shader == shader) return true;
+  if(!driver->hasShader()) return false;
+  if(!driver->setShader(driver->shader = shader)) return false;
   return true;
 }
 
+//
+
+auto Video::clear() -> void {
+  return driver->clear();
+}
+
+auto Video::acquire(uint32_t*& data, uint& pitch, uint width, uint height) -> bool {
+  return driver->acquire(data, pitch, width, height);
+}
+
+auto Video::release() -> void {
+  return driver->release();
+}
+
+auto Video::output() -> void {
+  return driver->output();
+}
+
+auto Video::poll() -> void {
+  return driver->poll();
+}
+
+//
+
 auto Video::onUpdate(const function<void (uint, uint)>& onUpdate) -> void {
-  _onUpdate = onUpdate;
+  update = onUpdate;
 }
 
 auto Video::doUpdate(uint width, uint height) -> void {
-  if(_onUpdate) return _onUpdate(width, height);
+  if(update) return update(width, height);
 }
 
-//protected functions
+//
 
-//static functions
-
-auto Video::create(string driver) -> Video* {
-  Video* video = nullptr;
+auto Video::create(string driver) -> bool {
+  reset();
   if(!driver) driver = optimalDriver();
 
   #if defined(VIDEO_CGL)
-  if(driver == "OpenGL") video = new VideoCGL;
+  if(driver == "OpenGL") self.driver = new VideoCGL(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(VIDEO_DIRECT3D)
-  if(driver == "Direct3D") video = new VideoDirect3D;
+  if(driver == "Direct3D") self.driver = new VideoDirect3D(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(VIDEO_DIRECTDRAW)
-  if(driver == "DirectDraw") video = new VideoDirectDraw;
+  if(driver == "DirectDraw") self.driver = new VideoDirectDraw(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(VIDEO_GDI)
-  if(driver == "GDI") video = new VideoGDI;
+  if(driver == "GDI") self.driver = new VideoGDI(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(VIDEO_GLX)
-  if(driver == "OpenGL") video = new VideoGLX;
+  if(driver == "OpenGL") self.driver = new VideoGLX(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(VIDEO_GLX2)
-  if(driver == "OpenGL2") video = new VideoGLX2;
+  if(driver == "OpenGL2") self.driver = new VideoGLX2(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(VIDEO_WGL)
-  if(driver == "OpenGL") video = new VideoWGL;
+  if(driver == "OpenGL") self.driver = new VideoWGL(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(VIDEO_XSHM)
-  if(driver == "XShm") video = new VideoXShm;
+  if(driver == "XShm") self.driver = new VideoXShm(*this);
   #endif
 
   #if defined(VIDEO_XVIDEO)
-  if(driver == "XVideo") video = new VideoXVideo;
+  if(driver == "XVideo") self.driver = new VideoXVideo(*this);
   #endif
 
-  if(!video) video = new Video;
+  if(!self.driver) self.driver = new VideoDriver(*this);
 
-  video->_exclusive = video->exclusive();
-  video->_context = video->context();
-  video->_blocking = video->blocking();
-  video->_flush = video->flush();
-  video->_format = video->defaultFormat();
-  video->_smooth = video->smooth();
-  video->_shader = video->shader();
+  return self.driver->create();
+}
 
-  return video;
+auto Video::hasDrivers() -> vector<string> {
+  return {
+
+  #if defined(VIDEO_WGL)
+  "OpenGL",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(VIDEO_DIRECT3D)
+  "Direct3D",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(VIDEO_DIRECTDRAW)
+  "DirectDraw",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(VIDEO_GDI)
+  "GDI",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(VIDEO_CGL)
+  "OpenGL",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(VIDEO_GLX)
+  "OpenGL",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(VIDEO_GLX2)
+  "OpenGL2",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(VIDEO_XVIDEO)
+  "XVideo",
+  #endif
+
+  #if defined(VIDEO_XSHM)
+  "XShm",
+  #endif
+
+  "None"};
 }
 
 auto Video::optimalDriver() -> string {
@@ -184,46 +254,4 @@ auto Video::safestDriver() -> string {
   #endif
 }
 
-auto Video::availableDrivers() -> vector<string> {
-  return {
-
-  #if defined(VIDEO_WGL)
-  "OpenGL",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(VIDEO_DIRECT3D)
-  "Direct3D",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(VIDEO_DIRECTDRAW)
-  "DirectDraw",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(VIDEO_GDI)
-  "GDI",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(VIDEO_CGL)
-  "OpenGL",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(VIDEO_GLX)
-  "OpenGL",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(VIDEO_GLX2)
-  "OpenGL2",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(VIDEO_XVIDEO)
-  "XVideo",
-  #endif
-
-  #if defined(VIDEO_XSHM)
-  "XShm",
-  #endif
-
-  "None"};
-}
-
 }
diff --git a/ruby/video/video.hpp b/ruby/video/video.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..4c270874
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ruby/video/video.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+struct Video;
+
+struct VideoDriver {
+  VideoDriver(Video& super) : super(super) {}
+  virtual ~VideoDriver() = default;
+
+  virtual auto create() -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto driverName() -> string { return "None"; }
+  virtual auto ready() -> bool { return true; }
+
+  virtual auto hasExclusive() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto hasContext() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto hasBlocking() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto hasFlush() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto hasFormats() -> vector<string> { return {"RGB24"}; }
+  virtual auto hasSmooth() -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto hasShader() -> bool { return false; }
+
+  auto hasFormat(string format) -> bool { return (bool)hasFormats().find(format); }
+
+  virtual auto setExclusive(bool exclusive) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setFlush(bool flush) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setFormat(string format) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setSmooth(bool smooth) -> bool { return true; }
+  virtual auto setShader(string shader) -> bool { return true; }
+
+  virtual auto clear() -> void {}
+  virtual auto acquire(uint32_t*& data, uint& pitch, uint width, uint height) -> bool { return false; }
+  virtual auto release() -> void {}
+  virtual auto output() -> void {}
+  virtual auto poll() -> void {}
+
+protected:
+  Video& super;
+  friend class Video;
+
+  bool exclusive = false;
+  uintptr context = 0;
+  bool blocking = false;
+  bool flush = false;
+  string format = "RGB24";
+  bool smooth = false;
+  string shader = "";
+};
+
+struct Video {
+  static auto hasDrivers() -> vector<string>;
+  static auto hasDriver(string driver) -> bool { return (bool)hasDrivers().find(driver); }
+  static auto optimalDriver() -> string;
+  static auto safestDriver() -> string;
+
+  Video() : self(*this) {}
+  explicit operator bool() const { return (bool)driver; }
+  auto reset() -> void { driver.reset(); }
+  auto create(string driver = "") -> bool;
+  auto driverName() -> string { return driver->driverName(); }
+  auto ready() -> bool { return driver->ready(); }
+
+  auto hasExclusive() -> bool { return driver->hasExclusive(); }
+  auto hasContext() -> bool { return driver->hasContext(); }
+  auto hasBlocking() -> bool { return driver->hasBlocking(); }
+  auto hasFlush() -> bool { return driver->hasFlush(); }
+  auto hasFormats() -> vector<string> { return driver->hasFormats(); }
+  auto hasSmooth() -> bool { return driver->hasSmooth(); }
+  auto hasShader() -> bool { return driver->hasShader(); }
+
+  auto hasFormat(string format) -> bool { return driver->hasFormat(format); }
+
+  auto exclusive() -> bool { return driver->exclusive; }
+  auto context() -> uintptr { return driver->context; }
+  auto blocking() -> bool { return driver->blocking; }
+  auto flush() -> bool { return driver->flush; }
+  auto format() -> string { return driver->format; }
+  auto smooth() -> bool { return driver->smooth; }
+  auto shader() -> string { return driver->shader; }
+
+  auto setExclusive(bool exclusive) -> bool;
+  auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool;
+  auto setBlocking(bool blocking) -> bool;
+  auto setFlush(bool flush) -> bool;
+  auto setFormat(string format) -> bool;
+  auto setSmooth(bool smooth) -> bool;
+  auto setShader(string shader) -> bool;
+
+  auto clear() -> void;
+  auto acquire(uint32_t*& data, uint& pitch, uint width, uint height) -> bool;
+  auto release() -> void;
+  auto output() -> void;
+  auto poll() -> void;
+
+  auto onUpdate(const function<void (uint, uint)>&) -> void;
+  auto doUpdate(uint width, uint height) -> void;
+
+protected:
+  Video& self;
+  unique_pointer<VideoDriver> driver;
+  function<void (uint, uint)> update;
+};
diff --git a/ruby/video/xshm.cpp b/ruby/video/xshm.cpp
index 9f8b59e4..23a802b9 100644
--- a/ruby/video/xshm.cpp
+++ b/ruby/video/xshm.cpp
@@ -8,38 +8,28 @@
 #include <sys/shm.h>
 #include <X11/extensions/XShm.h>
 
-struct VideoXShm : Video {
-  VideoXShm() { initialize(); }
+struct VideoXShm : VideoDriver {
+  VideoXShm& self;
+
+  VideoXShm(Video& super) : VideoDriver(super), self(*this) {}
   ~VideoXShm() { terminate(); }
 
-  auto driver() -> string override { return "XShm"; }
+  auto create() -> bool {
+    return initialize();
+  }
+
+  auto driverName() -> string override { return "XShm"; }
   auto ready() -> bool override { return _ready; }
 
   auto hasContext() -> bool override { return true; }
   auto hasSmooth() -> bool override { return true; }
 
-  auto availableFormats() -> vector<string> { return {"RGB24"}; }
+  auto hasFormats() -> vector<string> override { return {"RGB24"}; }
 
-  auto exclusive() -> bool override { return false; }
-  auto blocking() -> bool override { return false; }
-  auto flush() -> bool override { return false; }
-  auto format() -> string override { return "RGB24"; }
-  auto shader() -> string override { return ""; }
-
-  auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool override {
-    if(context == this->context()) return true;
-    if(!Video::setContext(context)) return false;
-    return initialize();
-  }
-
-  auto setSmooth(bool smooth) -> bool override {
-    if(smooth == this->smooth()) return true;
-    if(!Video::setSmooth(smooth)) return false;
-    return true;
-  }
+  auto setContext(uintptr context) -> bool override { return initialize(); }
+  auto setSmooth(bool smooth) -> bool override { return true; }
 
   auto clear() -> void override {
-    if(!ready()) return;
     auto dp = _inputBuffer;
     uint length = _inputWidth * _inputHeight;
     while(length--) *dp++ = 255u << 24;
@@ -47,7 +37,6 @@ struct VideoXShm : Video {
   }
 
   auto acquire(uint32_t*& data, uint& pitch, uint width, uint height) -> bool override {
-    if(!ready()) return false;
     if(!_inputBuffer || _inputWidth != width || _inputHeight != height) {
       if(_inputBuffer) delete[] _inputBuffer;
       _inputWidth = width;
@@ -61,11 +50,9 @@ struct VideoXShm : Video {
   }
 
   auto release() -> void override {
-    if(!ready()) return;
   }
 
   auto output() -> void override {
-    if(!ready()) return;
     size();
 
     float xratio = (float)_inputWidth / (float)_outputWidth;
@@ -79,7 +66,7 @@ struct VideoXShm : Video {
       uint32_t* sp = _inputBuffer + (uint)ystep * _inputWidth;
       uint32_t* dp = _outputBuffer + y * _outputWidth;
 
-      if(!_smooth) {
+      if(!self.smooth) {
         for(uint x = 0; x < _outputWidth; x++) {
           *dp++ = 255u << 24 | sp[(uint)xstep];
           xstep += xratio;
@@ -105,7 +92,7 @@ struct VideoXShm : Video {
       if(event.type == Expose) {
         XWindowAttributes attributes;
         XGetWindowAttributes(_display, _window, &attributes);
-        doUpdate(attributes.width, attributes.height);
+        super.doUpdate(attributes.width, attributes.height);
       }
     }
   }
@@ -113,13 +100,13 @@ struct VideoXShm : Video {
 private:
   auto initialize() -> bool {
     terminate();
-    if(!_context) return false;
+    if(!self.context) return false;
 
     _display = XOpenDisplay(nullptr);
     _screen = DefaultScreen(_display);
 
     XWindowAttributes getAttributes;
-    XGetWindowAttributes(_display, (Window)_context, &getAttributes);
+    XGetWindowAttributes(_display, (Window)self.context, &getAttributes);
     _depth = getAttributes.depth;
     _visual = getAttributes.visual;
     //driver only supports 32-bit pixels
@@ -131,7 +118,7 @@ private:
 
     XSetWindowAttributes setAttributes = {};
     setAttributes.border_pixel = 0;
-    _window = XCreateWindow(_display, (Window)_context,
+    _window = XCreateWindow(_display, (Window)self.context,
       0, 0, 256, 256, 0,
       getAttributes.depth, InputOutput, getAttributes.visual,
       CWBorderPixel, &setAttributes
@@ -160,7 +147,7 @@ private:
 
   auto size() -> bool {
     XWindowAttributes windowAttributes;
-    XGetWindowAttributes(_display, (Window)_context, &windowAttributes);
+    XGetWindowAttributes(_display, (Window)self.context, &windowAttributes);
 
     if(_outputBuffer && _outputWidth == windowAttributes.width && _outputHeight == windowAttributes.height) return true;
     _outputWidth = windowAttributes.width;